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Bulletin  No.  20.  (Dairy  No.  19.) 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.  ^*js 


■  'HE  MILK  SUPPLY  OF  BOSTON 


AND  OTHER  NEW  ENGLAND  CITIES. 


BY 


GEORGE    M.   WHITAKER,  M.  A., 

SPECIAL   EXPERT   AGENT,  DAIRY   DIVISION. 


Under  the  direction  of 

Dr.    D.    E.    SALMON, 

Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  .A-nimal  Industry. 


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WASHINGTON : 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 

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A  MAP 

OF  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE 

MILK  SUPPLY  OF  THE 

GREATER  BOSTON . 

PLACES  WHERE  MILK  CARS  START 
ARE  MARKED  THUS  • 

THE  H./ILRO.ID  OVER  WHICH 
MILK  IS  SHIPPED  BY 

EL  M  FARM  COMPAW  IS  MARKED  - 

O.WHITINOS-  SONS-' > 

BOSTON  DAIRY  COr" < 

C.BRIOHAM  COMPANY- » 

H.P.H00D&C0. •---« 


Bulletin  No.  20.  (Dairy  No.  19.) 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU   OF   ANIMAL   INDUSTRY. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  OF  BOSTON 


AND  OTHER  NEW  ENGLAND  CITIES. 


BY 


GHECmOE    M.    WHITAKER,  M.  A., 

SPECIAL   EXPERT    AGENT,   DAIRY    DIVISION. 


Under  the  direction  of 

Dr.    D.    E.    SALMON, 
(  ihiefof  tlie  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 


WASHINGTON : 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 

189  8. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C,  January  18,  1898. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith,  for  publication  as  a  bul- 
letin of  this  Bureau,  a  report  on  the  milk  supply  of  Boston  and  other 
cities  in  the  New  England  States,  prepared  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  Maj.  Henry  E.  Alvord,  Chief  of  Dairy  Division,  by  George  M. 
Whitaker,  M.  A.,  special  agent  of  that  division. 

Mr.  Whitaker  is  the  acting  executive  officer  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Dairy  Bureau,  and  has  been  for  some  years  secretary  of  the  New 
England  Milk  Producers'  Union.  He  has  made  the  subject  of  city  milk 
supply  a  special  study,  and  this  report  contains  much  information  of 
general  interest. 

Very  respectfully,  D.  E.  Salmon, 

Chief  of  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

/Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

3 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Population 7 

Milk  supply :  Transportation,  distribution,  statistics 9 

Boston — 

Cars 9 

Cans 9 

Historical     10 

Wholesale  methods 11 

The  wholesalers  or  contractors 12 

Statistics 13 

Milk  Producers'  Union 14 

Prices  paid,  several  years 15 

Grading  the  price 16 

Contractors'  surplus 17 

Retailing 19 

Returning  clean  cans 20 

Methods  of  producers  and  shippers l'O 

Boston  system  summed  up 21 

Other  milk  supply 22 

Providence 23 

( >ther  cities 24 

The  cream  trade 2a 

Skim  milk 26 

( londensed  milk 27 

Milk  consumption  per  capita 27 

Milk  laws  and  inspection 28 

Legal  standard  and  adulteration 2S 

Official  inspection 29 

Sanitary  laws  and  inspection 30 

Health  orders 32 

Quality  of  milk  sold 32 

Need  of  advanced  practices 36 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


EJlate  I.  Map  Bliowing  the  principal  sources  of  the  milk  supply  of  the  Greater 

Boston Frontispiece. 

11.  Fig.  1.  Milk  train  at  city  terminal,  Boston 10 

2.  Interior  of  milk-receiving  sheds,  city  terminal. 

III.    Fig.  1.    Milk  depot  of  Host -on tractor 10 

2.  Interior  of  milk- contractor's  depot,  Boston. 

5 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  OF  BOSTON  AXP  OTHER  NEW 
ENGLAND  CITIES. 


POPULATION. 

The  New  England  States,  by  the  census  of  1890,  have  a  population 
of  nearly  5,000,000  people,  divided  as  follows: 

Massachusetts 2,  238,  943 

Connecticut 746,  258 

Maine 661,  086 

New  Hampshire 376,  530 

Rhode  Island 345.506 

Vermont 332,  422 


Total 4.700,  745 

Massachusetts,  by  the  State  census  of  189-">,  has  a  population  of 
2,500,183.  Fifty  per  cent  of  these  people  live  in  the  cities  or  large 
towns — those  of  10,000  population  or  above.  Forty-one  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  New  England  live  in  cities  of  over  20,000  iuhabitants. 
lioston  is  the  largest  city  and  the  commercial  center  of  New  England, 
witli  a  population  of  496,920  (census  of  1895).  This  one  city  therefore 
contains  10  per  cent  of  all  the  population  of  New  England;  more  than 
any  one  of  the  States  of  Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  or  Vermont. 
But  Boston  is  surrounded  by  a  group  of  towns  and  cities,  twenty-three 
in  all,  which,  according  to  the  State  census  of  1895,  have  a  total  popu- 
lation of  451,000,  as  follows: 

Cambridge 81.  000  Medford 14,  000 

Lynn 62, ( Hyde  Park 11,000 

Somerville 52,000  Melrose 12,000 

Chelsea  31,000  Stonebam 6,000 

Newton 27,  00o  Arlington 6,000 

Maiden  29.000  Belmout 3,000 

Walthan 20,000  SaugnB I.ikhi 

Qnincy 20,000  Winchester 6,000 

Woburn 14.000  Watertown 7.  (too 

Brookline    Ki.ooo  Revere 7,  ooo 

Everett 18,000  Milton 5,000 

The  interests  of  these  towns  are  closely  allied  with  those  of  Boston, 
and  their  business  men  to  a  large  extent  do  business  in  Boston.    The 

business    interests   of  this   section   are  identical,  though    it    includes 
twenty-four  separate   municipalities.     Consequently  it   is   frequently 

7 


8 

alluded  to  as  the  "  Greater  Boston.'"  The  Greater  Boston  lias  a  popu- 
lation which  exceeds  948,000.  This  is  18  per  cent  of  the  population  of 
New  England — more  than  any  New  England  State  except  Massachu- 
setts, and  more  than  any  two  of  the  three  smaller  States. 

Providence  is  the  second  New  England  city,  with  a  population  exceed- 
ing 150,000. 

Aside  from  the  Greater  Boston  and  Providence,  no  New  England  city, 
by  the  census  of  1890,  had  a  population  exceeding  100,000.  The  fol- 
lowing five  cities,  with  a  total  of  374,000  persons,  each  had  a  population 
exceeding  50,000,  but  less  than  100,000 : 


Census 
of  1890. 


New  Haven,  Conn 
Worcester,  Mass. . 

Lowell,  Mass 

Fall  River,  Mass. . 
Hartford,  Conn  . . . 


80,  000 
84,  000 
77,  000 
74.  000 
53,  000 


State 

census  of 

1895. 


98,  000 
84,  000 
89,  000 


The  following  nineteen  cities  (total,  534,000)  had  a  population  between 
20,000  and  50,000,  and  thirty-six  others  had  a  population  of  from  10,000 
to  20,000  each : 


Census 
I  of  1890. 


Bridgeport,  Conn 49.  000 

Manchester,  N.  H ,  44,000 

Lawrence,  Mass 44,  000 

Springfield,  Mass 44,  000 

New  Bedford,  Masa 41,000 

Portland,  Me B0,  000 

Holyoke.  Mass 35,  000 

Salem,  Mass 30,  000 

Waterburv,  Conn 2s,  000 

Pawtucket,  II.  I 27,  000 


52,  000 
51,000 
55,  000 


40,000 

34,  000 


Census 
of  1890. 


Brockton,  Mass j  27,  000 

Haverhill,  Mass 27,  000 

Taunton,  Mass |  25, 000 


Lewiston.  Me 
Fitchburg,  Mass  . 
Woonsocket.  R.  I. 
( Uoucester,  Mass . 

Meriden,  Conn 

Lincoln,  R.  I 


22,  ooo 
22, 000 
21,000 
21,000 
21,000 
20,  000 


State 
census 
of  1895. 

38,  000 
30,  000 
27,  000 


26,  000 
28,  000 


A  study  of  the  milk  supply  of  these  cities,  therefore,  is  a  study  of 
the  milk  supply  of  half  of  the  population  of  New  England.  Further- 
more, a  consideration  of  the  milk  supply  of  New  England  must,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  be  devoted  to  the  milk  supply  of  the  Greater  Bos- 
ton, which  has  18  per  cent  of  all  the  population  of  New  England  and 
over  one-third  of  the  city  population  of  that  section,  the  remainder  being 
distributed  among  sixty- four  places. 

It  is  proper  that  Boston  should  receive  almost  a  monopoly  of  atten- 
tion for  another  reason  than  that  of  its  relative  size  and  commercial 
importance.  It  is  about  the  only  city  in  New  England  whose  supply 
presents  interesting  and  peculiar  conditions. 

Nearly  all  of  the  milk  supply  of  the  other  cities  and  large  towns 
comes  from  sources  within  a  dozen  miles  of  the  point  of  consumption, 
and  is  largely  distributed  by  producers  from  their  own  wagons.  The 
ordinary  milk  peddler  is  such  a  familiar  spectacle,  so  similar  to  every 
other  peddler,  as  to  make  a  detailed  report  of  his  work  in  the  different 


cities  an  uninteresting-  repetition  of  substantially  the  same  methods, 
conditions,  and  circumstances  which  are  already  well  known.  On  the 
other  hand,  most  of  the  Greater  Boston  supply  coming"  from  more 
remote  distances  by  railroads,  presents  conditions  peculiar  to  itself. 

MILK    SUPPLY — TRANSPORTATION,   DISTRIBUTION,    STATISTICS. 

BOSTON. 

Cars. — Three-fourths  of  the  milk  supply  of  the  Greater  Boston 
reaches  the  city  by  railroad.  The  longest  direct  run  is  140  miles,  and 
some  railroad  milk  comes  only  20  miles.  Most  of  this  milk  is  conveyed 
in  cars  built  for  this  especial  purpose,  with  refrigerator  closets  for  the 
cans  of  milk  and  with  provision  for  steam  heat.  Thus  refrigeration  in 
summer  and  warming  in  winter  are  provided.  Some  of  the  cars  have 
an  office  room  provided  with  chairs,  desk,  and  pigeonholes  for  the  use 
of  the  man  in  charge  of  the  car.  Here  he  has  all  needed  conveniences 
for  keeping  record  of  the  milk  taken  at  the  different  stations,  and 
other  necessary  accounts. 

These  cars  are  leased  from  the  railroads  by  wholesalers.  These 
wholesalers  furnish  the  carmen,  ice,  and  other  supplies;  the  railroad 
hauls  the  cars  on  passenger  trains  or  in  special  milk  trains,  according  to 
convenience  in  individual  cases.  Most  of  the  cars  start  in  the  morning, 
from  4  to  6  o'clock,  and  reach  the  city  between  10  and  11.  In  a  few 
instances  the  car  starts  the  afternoon  previous,  and  is  on  the  road  over 
night,  reaching  Boston  during  the  next  forenoon.  The  cars,  in  the 
summer,  frequently  take  the  milk  of  the  same  morning;  some  start  too 
early  for  the  milk  of  that  morning,  especially  in  the  winter,  and  hence 
bring  the  milk  of  the  previous  day.  Milk  is  therefore  eighteen  to  thirty 
hours  old  before  reaching  the  city.  The  number  of  these  milk  cars 
averages  about  35,  although  varying  somewhat  with  the  season. 

Cans. — The  milk  sold  in  Boston  is  shipped  in  8A-quart  cans,  with  a 
handle  on  one  side  and  turned  wooden  stopples.  The  quart  is,  by  stat- 
ute, the  wine  measure  quart.3  No  one  in  the  trade  to-day  can  tell  why 
this  size  and  shape  of  cans  was  originally  adopted.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  them  are:  Convenience  in  handling,  convenience  in  retail- 
ing (as  many  customers  buy  one  or  two  cans),  convenience  to  many 
small  farmers  who  can  fill  only  two  or  three  cans  per  day.  convenience 
in  transportation  (as  the  cans  can  be  stacked  several  tiers  high), 
cleanliness  in  retailing  where  milk  is  poured  from  the  can.  as  it  is 
sooner  emptied  than  a  40-quart  can,  and  hence  the  milk  is  exposed  to 
the  air  and  dirt  a  much  less  time.-' 


1  One  quart,  wine  measure,  is  57$  cubic  inches,  or  2  pounds'  1/;  ounces  of  water,  and 
2  pounds  -  ,  ounces  of  milk. 

(in  the  other  hand,  there  air  serious  objections  to  the  Boston  fan.  Five  small 
cans  cost  more  than  one  Large  one  ami  are  more  difficult  and  expensive  to  clean 
The  danger  of  loss  and  damage  is  increased.  But  the  worsl  thing  about  it  is  the 
wooden  stopple.     Milk  enter.-,  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  penetrates  so  tar  that  no 


10 

For  several  years  in  the  early  history  of  the  business  there  was  in 
use  a  can  containing  8i  quarts  beer  measure,1  equal  to  about  10  quarts 
wine  measure;  but  it  gradually  dropped  out  of  use,  the  smaller  can 
being  more  popular.  The  larger  can  is  yet  in  use  in  Providence,  B.  I., 
but  the  8i-quart  can,  wine  measure,  is  generally  used  throughout  New 
England.  The  business  was  formerly  done  by  beer  measure,  and  these 
8 J  quart  cans,  wine  measure,  hold  7  quarts,  beer  measure.  The  agita- 
tion for  the  change  was  partly  based  on  the  expectation  that  there 
would  be  more  money  for  farmers  and  middlemen  by  getting  8i  quarts 
into  a  can  that  had  formerly  contained  7  quarts.  But  consumers  were 
not  slow  to  discover  that  they  were  getting  a  smaller  quart,  and  the 
attempt  failed  to  gain  the  price  of  li  quarts  per  can  by  the  flat  that  the 
quart  should  be  smaller. 

A  carload  of  milk  is  generally  considered  to  be  900  cans,  but  the 
peculiar  shape,  with  flattop  wooden  stopples,  allows  of  stacking  them 
in  tiers,  so  that  in  an  emergency  several  hundred  more  cans  can  be  put 
into  a  car.  '  By  filling  passageways  and  other  open  spaces  as  many  as 
1,200  cans  (10,200  quarts),  or  over  10  tons  in  weight,  can  be  got  into  a 
car.  Bailroad  officials  consider  10  tons  a  carload.  The  nominal  load, 
however,  is  900  cans  (7,650  quarts). 

The  accompanying  illustrations  (Plates  II,  III)  show  the  general 
shape  of  the  cans  and  illustrate  the  method  of  handling  them.  These 
engravings  present  a  familiar  daily  sight  at  the  milk  depots  when  the 
milk  trains  arrive. 

Historical. — Boston  seems  to  have  been  the  pioneer  city  of  the  United 
States  in  the  transportation  of  milk  by  railroad.  The  year  1830  may 
be  taken  as  the  commencement  in  the  United  States  of  the  railroad 
system — the  use  of  steam  applied  to  locomotives.  Soon  after  this  v  e 
find  the  Boston  peddlers  reaching  out  into  the  country  for  a  milk 
supply.  Jason  Chamberlain  was  the  first  man  to  bring  milk  to  Boston 
by  railroad,  and  the  time  of  his  beginning  was  April,  1838.  He  oper- 
ated on  the  Boston  and  Worcester  Bailroad.  He  sold  milk  at  25  cents 
per  can  of  9i  quarts.  Mr.  Chamberlain  sold  his  business  to  Bufus 
Whiting,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  start  an  express  business 
on  the  Boston  and  Worcester  Bailroad.  He  was  an  associate  with, 
and  sold  his  business  to,  Mr.  Harnden,  the  now  famous  express  pro- 
moter. This  milk  came  by  express,  but  in  a  baggage  car.  The  first 
milk  car  was  run  soon  after,  by  a  company  of  peddlers,  between  West- 
boro  and  Boston.     This  was  followed  by  the  Boston  Milk  Company, 

cleaning  process  is  efficient.  Stopples  split  have  shown  penetration  for  half  an  inch, 
commonly,  and  sometimes  more,  and  from  these  pieces  germ  cultures  have  been  made 
of  an  extremely  objectionable  and  offensive  kind,  although  the  stopples  had  been 
soaked,  scalded,  and  steamed,  and  were  supposed  to  be  clean  and  harmless. 

H.  E.  A. 

1  One  quart,  beer  measure,  is  70+  cubic  inches,  or  2  pounds  8f  ounces  of  water,  and 
2  pounds  10  ounces  of  milk. 


Bulletin  20,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  II. 


Fig.  1.-  Milk  Train  at  City  Terminal,  Boston. 


Fig.  2.    Interior  of  Milk-receiving  Sheds,  City  Terminal. 


Bulletin  20,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  III 


Fig    1.— Milk  Depot  of  Boston  Contractor. 


Fig.  2.— Interior  of  Milk-contractor's  Depot,  Boston. 


11 

which  ran  a  car  to  Cordaville,  and  by  Rowell  &  Kelly,  who  took  milk 
from  Northboro  and  Fayville.  In  April,  1843,  the  New  England 
Farmer  said: 

We  have  learned  that  one  man  hrings  in  upon  the  Woi'eester  Railroad  about 
200,000  gallons  annually.  This  is  supposed  to  be  about  one-tenth  of  all  that  is  sold 
in  the  city.  Two  millions  of  gallons  per  year  is  the  estimated  amount  of  consump- 
tion in  Boston.  This,  at  20  cents  per  gallon,  costs  the  citizens  $400,000  per  year,  and, 
supposing  the  population  to  be  100,000,  this  gives  to  each  inhabitant  yearly  20  gal- 
lons, or  a  small  fraction  less  than  half  a  pint  per  day.  The  dwellers  in  the  city  of 
"notions"  have  a  notion  that  they  pay  the  farmers  a  good  price  for  milk.  Five  or 
6  cents  per  quart  is  usually  given.  This  pays  the  farmers  of  the  immediate  vicinity 
as  well  as  they  get  paid  for  most  of  their  productions.  But  can  those  farmers  live 
who  sell  milk  at  their  doors  at  10  cents  per  gallon  in  the  summer  and  12  cents 
in  the  winter,  or  at  an  average  of  11  cents?  Many  such  farmers  there  are,  and  some 
sell  at  lower  rates  than  this,  and  yet  the  milk  dealer  gets  no  more  than  a  fair  com- 
pensation for  his  labors,  expenses,  and  risks. 

An  article  from  the  Albany  Cultivator,  reprinted  in  the  New  England 
Farmer  September  6,  1843,  said: 

A  brighter  day  is  dawning  on  the  dwellers  in  cities  so  far  as  milk  is  concerned,  and 
the  venders  of  swill  slop,  cold  water,  and  artificial  milks  are  finding  their  business 
seriously  endangered.  This  is  being  brought  about  by  the  influence  of  railroads, 
which,  spreading  a  network  over  the  country  and  centering  in  the  cities,  bring  the 
farmers  and  dairymen  residing  within  50  miles  of  the  city  within  a  few  hours,  and 
enable  them  to  otter  their  products  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  competition. 
This  effect  was  first  extensively  felt  in  Boston  in  the  reduction  of  the  price  and  the 
bettering  of  the  quality  of  milk,  though  that  city  had  never  been  forced  to  use 
such  scandalous  staff  as  was  sold  in  other  places  for  milk.  At  the  present  time  a 
large  portion  of  the  milk  used  in  that  city  is  received  by  the  railroads  from  country 
dairymen.     The  same  beneficial  effects  are  beginning  to  be  felt  in  New  York. 

At  one  time  two  cars  were  loaded  daily  at  Westboro,  some  farmers 
driving  15  miles  daily  to  the  railroad  station  with  their  supplies. 
Although  milk  consumption  has  increased  and  the  milk  territory  has 
extended  wonderfully  since  then,  the  shipments  from  this  station  have 
decreased.  The  growth  of  neighboring  towns  has  caused  more  milk  to 
be  used  near  where  it  is  produced. 

The  railroad  business  above  noticed  developed  on  the  Boston  and 
Worcester  Railroad,  entering  the  city  on  the  south  side.  Meanwhile, 
however,  similar  enterprises  had  been  undertaken  on  the  north  side  of 
the  city.  Peddlers  had  gone  out  to  Concord,  Mass.,  and  other  places 
for  milk  and  supplies. 

T.  VV.  Wellington,  of  Newton,  was  the  first  to  buy  milk  in  Wilton, 
N.  II.,  for  the  Boston  market.  For  about  a  year  Mr.  Wellington  con- 
tinued in  the  business,  taking  less  than  200  gallons  per  day  in  a  baggage 
car.  Mr.  Wellington  sold  to  David  L.  Pierce,  a  retail  milk  dealer  in 
Boston,  who  increased  the  business  so  that  a  special  milk  car  was  nec- 
essary. After  continuing  in  the  business  for  three  or  four  years  he  sold 
to  David  Whiting^  in  the  spring  of  L857. 

Present  wholesale  methods. — These  early  shipments  of  milk  were  made 


12 

by  peddlers  who  brought  into  the  city  the  milk  which  they  needed  for 
their  retail  trade.  But  as  the  business  increased  there  happened  what 
has  taken  place  in  every  other  industry — specialization.  Handling 
milk  at  wholesale  became  a  distinct  business  from  retailing,  and  the 
men  who  brought  in  railroad  milk  came  in  time  to  devote  the  whole  of 
their  energy  and  capital  to  buying  milk  of  the  farmers,  transporting 
it,  and  selling  to  retailers. 

Various  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  personnel  of  these  firms  of 
pioneer  peddlers  and  subsequent  wholesalers,  but  many  of  the  names 
early  identified  with  the  business  are  still  in  use.  Consolidations  have 
also  taken  place,  till  to-day  the  business  of  transporting  milk  to  the  city 
by  railroad  is  done  by  seven  concerns.  Six  of  these  seven  milk  whole- 
saling houses  have  an  association  for  bringing  about  uniformity  in 
methods  of  doing  business  and  for  mutual  self  protection.  To-day  fully 
three-quarters  of  the  milk  supply  of  the  Greater  Boston  passes  through 
the  hands  of  these  large  wholesalers,  locally  known  as  ''contractors." 

These  contractors  furnish  the  cans  for  the  business  and  lease  the  cars 
of  the  railroads.  They  furnish  men  and  supplies  for  the  cars.  In  some 
cases  they  have  loading  platforms  at  shipping  stations.  At  a  number 
of  convenient  points  in  the  country  they  have  ice  houses  and  cut  their 
own  supply  of  ice.  In  the  city  they  have  platforms,  storehouses,  refrig- 
erators, offices,  etc.,  near  the  railroad  tracks;  and  their  cars  on  reach- 
ing the  city  are  switched  onto  the  side  tracks  at  their  business  depots. 
The  loading  and  unloading  is  done  by  the  contractors. 

AH  of  the  contractors  have  cheese  or  butter  factories  in  the  city  or 
country,  or  both,  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese. 

The  milk  is  bought  in  the  country  at  a  juice  for  the  milk  delivered  at 
:he  car  at  the  different  country  railroad  stations.  In  some  instances 
each  farmer  carries  his  milk  to  the  railroad  station;  in  others  the  farm- 
ers in  one  neighborhood  or  in  one  locality  cooperate  in  an  arrangement 
with  one  of  their  number  to  do  the  teaming;  in  yet  other  instances  the 
contractors  employ  someone  to  haul  milk  from  the  farmers'  doors  to 
the  railroad  station,  and  deduct  the  expense  from  the  amount  due  the 
farmers  for  milk.  Milk  is  frequently  drawn  6  miles  to  a  railroad  sta- 
tion, and  in  some  cases  as  far  as  10  to  15  miles. 

The  wholesalers  or  contractors. — The  various  companies  and  individ- 
uals above  alluded  to  as  carrying  milk  on  the  Boston  and  Worcester 
Railroad,  on  the  south  side  of  the  city,  consolidated  into  the  firm  of  C. 
Brigham  &  Co.  to  do  a  strictly  wholesale  business.  This  company 
later  became  incorporated  as  The  C.  Brigham  Company,  and  is  yet  in 
the  business. 

Mr.  David  Whiting,  who  bought  the  business  of  Mr.  Wellington,  as 
noticed  above,  was  a  large  and  successful  farmer.  Although  driven 
into  the  business  to  protect  his  interests,  the  traits  of  character  which 
brought  success  in  other  enterprises  made  him  successful  as  a  milk 
wholesaler.     In  1805  he  associated  with  him  his  sous,  George  O.  and 


13 

Harvey  A.,  under  the  firm  name  of  D.  Whiting  &  Sons.  The  business 
is  continued  to-day  under  the  same  name,  two  of  Mr.  Whiting's  grand- 
sons being  among  the  executive  officers. 

Mr.  H.  P.  Hood  began  in  the  milk  business  in  Boston,  as  a  peddler,  in 
1846.  For  nine  years  he  bought  milk  of  contractors,  but  in  1S55  he 
began  running  a  car  on  his  own  account  from  Derry,  N.  H.,  to  which 
place  he  moved.  He  has  been  in  the  wholesale  milk  business  ever  since, 
and  has  increased  the  business  from  one  to  eight  cars.  His  sons  are 
now  associated  with  him  in  the  management  of  the  business. 

The  Boston  Dairy  Company  is  the  newest  of  the  larger  companies;  it 
is  the  consolidation  of  several  interests,  and  is  a  continuation  of  the 
long-established  business  of  Tower  &  Whitcomb.  Mr.  W.  A.  Graustein 
is  the  executive  head. 

The  Elm  Farm  Company  was  started  by  a  wealthy  farmer-manufacturer, 
Mr.  Ray,  of  Franklin,  Mass.,  as  a  means  of  marketing  his  own  milk  inde- 
pendent of  the  regular  contractors;  but  he  soon  commenced  buying 
milk  of  his  farmer  neighbors,  and  the  business  extended  until  the  com- 
pany confined  itself  to  a  wholesale  business. 

Mr.  J.  F.French  brings  one  carload  per  day  into  the  city,  and  has 
done  so  for  several  years. 

These  are  the  component  elements  of  the  contractors'  association. 

In  addition,  one  car  of  milk  per  day  is  brought  into  the  city  by  the 
Deerfoot  Farm  Company  of  Southboro.  Mass..  much  of  which  is  sold 
direct  by  themselves  to  the  consumers.  The  Deerfoot  Farm  Company 
was  started  by  Hon.  Edward  Burnett  to  furnish  high-grade  Jersey  milk 
to  patrons  able  and  willing  to  pay  a  corresponding  price,  but  latterly 
the  business  has  increased  so  as  to  include,  in  addition  to  the  above,  a 
general  wholesale  trade.     Mr.  Robert  Burnett  is  the  executive  manager. 

Mr.  George  O.  Whiting,  the  executive  head  of  D.  Whiting  &  Sous, 
owns  a  controlling  interest  in  the  C.  Brigham  Company  and  in  the  Elm 
Farm  Company.  He  is  a  man  of  much  executive  energy,  and  is  known 
as  "the  milk  king  of  New  England." 

Statistics. — The  members  of  the  Milk  Contractors'  Association  report 
monthly  to  each  other  their  receipts  and  sales,  and  have  done  so  for 
years,  so  that  much  valuable  information  has  accumulated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  business.  These  figures  are  not  absolutely  infallible  for 
purposes  of  comparison,  because  the  association  has  occasionally  taken 
in  new  members,  whose  receipts  and  sales  are  then  added  to  those  of 
the  others.  Bttt  those  persons  to  whom  such  statistics  are  service;il>Ir 
can  make  some  allowance  for  this  and  find  much  value  in  the  figures. 


14 


TYe  give  below  some  recent  tables  on  this  subject,  the  figures  repre- 
senting the  number  of  Si-quart  cans : 


Tear. 

Receipts. 

Sales. 

Surplus. 

1892 

9,  212, 667 
9, 263,  487 

9,  705.  447 
9, 856,  500 

7, 315, 135 
7, 619,  722 
7, 657, 421 
8, 040, 732 

1893 

1,643.765 
2, 048.  026 

1894 

1895 

January... 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October  . . . 
November. 
December . 


844,703 
808.  383 
871,572 
891.  275 
1,  005, 115 
994, 817 
899,  397 
854.  913 
866.  691 
960,  734 
885,  903 
898,  599 


651.  827 
611,793 
657,  039 
672,  561 
696.  599 
675,  796 
712, 188 
687,  224 
635.  092 
699,  245 
690,  920 
707,  095 


192,  882 
196,  590 
214,  534 
218,714 
308,  516 
319,021 
187,  209 
167,  689 
231,  599 
261,  489 
194,  983 
191, 5U4 


Total 10,782,108  i  8,097,379  !   2,684,730 


1897 


January. .. 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August  . .. 
September 
October . . . 
November 
December  . 


Total 


923.  852 

835.  115 

960,  084 

976,  996 

1.  105.  325 

1, 115.  234 

1,013,552 

966,  058 

956.  445 

1,  037,  764 

962.  552 

945,  254 


705, 324 
639,  952 

719,  814 
733.  298 
759.  875 
752.(138 
789, 849 

720.  374 
732,  795 
751.  944 
708,  459 
724,850 


218,  528 
195, 163 
240,  27(1 
243,  698 
345.  450 
363. 196 
22:;.  7(i3 
245.  684 
223,650 

254,093 

220,  364 


11,  798,  231       8, 738, 572 


3, 059,  619 


.1/;7A-  Producers'  Union. — Before  going  on  to  speak  further  about  the 
prices  of  milk  and  some  of  the  detailed  methods  of  handling  it  which 
are  peculiar  to  Boston,  a  word  should  be  spoken  about  the  Milk  Pro- 
ducers' Union.  This  is  an  organization  of  the  farmers  who  sell  milk 
to  the  contractors.  The  farmers  of  the  several  shipping  towns  form  a 
local  organization  and  send  delegates  to  an  annual  meeting  of  the 
central  union,  which  elects  executive  officers  and  transacts  other  neces- 
sary business.  The  organization  has  been  in  existence  in  one  form  or 
another  since  1886.  The  work  of  the  union,  which  has  been  supple- 
mented by  that  of  the  association  of  wholesalers,  who  regulate  the 
business  from  their  end,  has  been  to  promote  uniformity  and  business- 
like methods.  The  tabulation  and  publication  of  the  above  statistics 
were  brought  about  through  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Milk  Producers' 
Union  and  the  Milk  Contractors'  Association.  The  prices  of  milk  are 
usually  arranged  by  mutual  agreement  between  the  contractors  and 
the  officers  of  the  Milk  Producers'  Union.  Blanks  are  sent  semi- 
annually to  the  producers  belonging  to  the  union,  on  whicli  they 
express  their  opinion  as  to  the  price  of  milk  and  state  the  number  of 
cans  shipped.     These  replies  are  averaged  on  the  basis  of  cans  rather 


15 


than  individuals;  and  the  negotiations  between  the  contractors  and 
the  union  are  based  upon  this  expression  of  opinion. 

The  union  has  the  machinery  in  its  constitution  for  ordering  a  strike, 
so  to  speak,  in  case  of  an  einergeucy.  Two  or  three  times  in  the  history 
of  the  union  a  rapture  of  this  kind  has  seemed  imminent,  but  it  has  been 
averted  for  the  best  interests  of  all,  usually  by  mutual  concessions,  so 
that  the  farmers  have  gained  directly  by  having  an  organization.  They 
also  feel  that  they  have  gained  some  unfought  battles,  and  believe  that 
they  have  generally  been  treated  better  by  the  contractors,  by  reason 
of  having  an  association,  than  they  would  have  been  if  the  contractors 
were  dealing  with  individuals,  or  simply  issued  an  ultimatum  of  what 
they  would  pay  for  milk  without  their  authority  being  questioned.  At 
times  some  farmers  have  been  dissatisfied  with  the  work  of  the  union 
because  it  was  not  more  radical  and  sweeping,  but  iu  the  main  the  more 
conservative  farmers  feel  that  it  has  been  of  great  service  to  them.  The 
existence  of  such  an  organization  has  tended  to  promote  uniformity 
in  prices,  and  there  has  been  little  variation  in  prices  for  a  number  of 
years. 

Prices  paid. — As  milk  is  shipped  from  stations  of  varying  distances 
from  the  city,  the  following  arrangement  has  been  made  as  a  convenient 
method  for  determining  a  price  for  each  station.  It  has  been  agreed 
between  the  contractors  and  the  Milk  Producers'  Union  that  all  nego- 
tiations should  be  for  a  theoretical  Boston  price  per  can,  and  that  there 
should  be  the  following  discounts  from  that  price: 

Cents. 

For  stations  between  17  and  23  miles  from  Boston 8 

For  stations  between  23  anil  36  miles  from  Boston 9 

For  stations  between  36  and  56  miles  from  Boston 10 

For  stations  between  56  and  71!  miles  from  Boston 11 

And  1  cent  more  for  each  additional  20  miles. 

The  price  is  adjusted  twice  a  year  for  the  six  months  beginning  A  jail 
1  and  October  1.  The  theoretical  Boston  price  per  can  of  8i  quarts  for 
a  number  of  years  has  been  as  follows: 


Tear. 

Summer. 

WillllT. 

Year. 

Slimmer. 

Winter. 

1886 

Cents. 

30 
30 
32 

31> 
32 
::3 
33 

(  ruts. 
36 
36 
38 

36 

:;7 

1893 
1894 
189.r> 
L896 
L897 

Cents. 

33 

33 
33 
33 
33 

(•■nts. 

37 

1887 

37 

1888 

37 

1889 

:;:. 

1890 

Average  (12  years)  — 

3.". 

189] 

1892 

32J 

3«! 

In  1874—75  the  winter  price  per  can  was  40  cents,  the  summer  price 
32  cents;  difference.  8  cents.  For  several  of  the  years  included  in  the 
above  table  there  was  a  difference  of  <»  cents  between  the  summer  and 
the  winter  prices.  In  1800  and  1891  the  summer  price  advanced  and 
the  winter  price  declined,  and  for  four  years  thereafter  there  was  a  dif- 
ference of  4  cents  per  can  between  summer  and  winter  milk.     In  Octo- 


16 

ber,  1896,  the  winter  price  was  cut  again,  leaving  the  difference  only  2 
cents.  The  increasing  attention  given  to  winter  dairying  has  brought 
the  supply  of  winter  milk  nearer  to  that  of  summer  milk,  and  made 
advisable,  so  the  contractors  claim,  less  disparity  in  price. 

The  increase  of  winter  dairying  has  been  caused  not  only  by  the 
increased  profit  in  winter  milk,  but  to  a  certain  extent,  in  market  gar- 
dening sections,  by  the  desire  of  farmers  who  produce  milk  to  carry 
more  cows  in  the  winter  in  order  to  get  manure  for  their  garden  crops. 

Payments  to  the  farmers  for  milk  sold  to  the  contractors  are  made 
monthly,  as  soon  after  the  1st  of  the  month  as  the  clerical  work  of 
closing  the  accounts  and  drawing  checks  can  be  done. 

According  to  the  agreement  alluded  to,  the  payment  per  can  of  milk 
which  the  farmer  would  receive  at  his  railroad  station  would  be  the 
theoretical  Boston  price  less  8,  9,  10,  or  11  cents,  depending  upon  his 
distance  from  the  city.  The  amount  of  milk  handled  by  the  contractors 
is  so  large  that  these  prices  govern  to  a  considerable  extent  the  deal- 
ings of  many  milkmen  in  other  places. 

When  this  arrangement  was  first  considered,  it  was  expected  that  the 
theoretical  Boston  price  would  be  the  figure  at  which  milk  would  be 
sold  to  the  peddlers,  and  that  the  discount  would  therefore  represent 
cost  of  transportation,  cost  of  doing  the  business,  losses  from  bad  bills, 
and  profits;  but  competition  of  one  kind  and  another  has  reduced  the 
price  to  the  peddlers  so  that  they  now  pay  3  and  4  cents  less  than  the 
nominal  Boston  price,  and  it  has  become  wholly  a  theoretical  figure, 
used  and  useful  only  as  a  number  from  which  to  subtract  the  various 
discounts  depending  upon  distance  of  transportation.  The  expenses 
of  doing  the  business  and  the  profits  to  the  contractors  are  therefore 
from  4  to  7  cents  per  can. 

Milk  was  sold  by  the  contractors  to  peddlers  during  the  summer  of 
1897  at  30  cents  per  can,  with  rumors  of  cutting  prices  to  29  and  even 
28  cents.  Milk  is  sold  by  the  peddlers  at  varying  prices.  Hotels  and 
large  restaurants  buy  close  and  allow  only  2  or  3  cents  for  handling; 
they  bought  during  1897  at  32  to  35  cents  per  can.  Small  stores,  which 
retail  by  the  quart  the  contents  of  only  a  few  cans,  pay  38  to  40  cents 
per  can.  Consumers  of  a  can  daily  pay  45  and  50  cents,  and  those 
who  have  a  quart  of  milk  delivered  at  their  houses  daily  by  the  milk- 
man pay  7  cents  per  quart.  Sometimes  pint  customers  pay  at  the 
rate  of  8  cents  per  quart.  By  going  to  the  store  for  it,  consumers  fre- 
quently buy  as  low  as  6  cents,  and  in  some  instances  for  5.  Milk  in  a 
few  cases  seems  to  be  selected  by  grocers  and  provision  dealers  as  an 
article  to  sell  at  cost  or  a  little  less  as  a  bid  for  other  business. 

Grading  the  price. — One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  way  in  which  the 
Boston  milk  business  is  carried  on  by  the  contractors  is  what  is  called 
" grading  the  price."  To  illustrate:  The  contractors  agree  to  pay  at 
stations  situated  a  certain  distance  from  Boston  24  cents  per  can  for 
the  summer — that  is,  from  April  to  October,    But  they  do  not  pay  24 


17 

cents  for  each  and  every  month ;  instead  of  that,  they  pay  a  price  which 
will  average  24  cents.  During  the  flush  months  of  May  and  June  the 
price  may  be  perhaps  22  cents,  and  to  offset  that  cut  the  price  will  be 
increased  to  26  cents  during  the  sultry  months  of  August  and  Septem- 
ber, when  milk  is  sometimes  scarce.  This  "grading"  has  a  tendency 
to  discourage  exceptionally  large  shipments  during  months  when  the 
supply  would  naturally  be  the  largest.  It  also  stimulates  production 
during  the  months  when  the  supply  might  otherwise  be  short.  When 
the  price  has  been  agreed  upon,  the  contractors  send  to  each  station  a 
card  similar  to  the  following: 

(For  railroad  stations  iu  the  towns  of  Chelmsford  and  Sudbury,  summer  of  1897.) 

The  graded  price  of  milk  per  can  of  eight  and  one-half  quarts,  delivered  iu  good 
order,  with  dairy  number  plainly  marked  on  stopper  with  stickers,  and  up  to  the 
standard  required  by  law,  in  the  car,  for  the  following  six  months,  from  April  1, 
1897,  will  be : 


Cents. 

April 24 

May 22 

June 22 


Cents. 

July 24 

August  26 

September 26 


Average,  24  cents. 

Iu  case  the  amount  of  milk  received  by  the  contractors  and  not  sold  for  use  as 
milk  shall  exceed  5  per  cent  of  the  entire  sales  of  the  month,  then  for  said  excess 
over  and  above  the  5  per  cent  the  contractors  shall  pay  only  what  said  excess  is 
worth  for  butter,  taking  the  average  price  of  butter  for  the  month;  and  the  value 
of  the  surplus  milk,  manufactured  into  butter,  shall  be  determined  by  a  committee  of 
farmers  and  contractors. 

MILK    CANS. 

Milk  cans  arc  the  property  of  the  persons  or  company  whose  name  is  stamped 
upon  them.  The  ownership  is  absolute.  The  legislature  has  passed  a  law  which 
makes  it  a  criminal  offense,  punishable  by  tine  and  imprisonment,  to  retain  or  make 
use  of  a  milk  can  for  any  purpose  whatever  without  the  consent  of  the  contractor 
or  owner.     (See  chapter  440,  Acts  of  1893.) 

Contractors1  surplus  milk. — As  stated  above,  the  contractors  and  the 
Producers'  Union  agree  upon  a  price  for  six  months  in  advance.  Iu 
doing  this  the  purchasing  contractors  seem  to  be  taking  some  chances, 
for  they  can  not  foresee  the  demand.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  in  the 
summer,  for  then  the  demand  depends  much  on  the  weather,  as  a  hot, 
sultry  "spell''  causes  the  consumption  of  milk  to  increase  rapidly. 
Further  than  this,  the  contractors  appear  to  take  large  chances  in 
another  way.  They  agree  to  take  all  the  milk  that  the  farmers  supply- 
ing them  with  milk  at  the  various  shipping  stations  may  produce. 
This  leads  to  receipts  largely  in  excess  of  the  demand,  as  has  been  seen 
by  the  preceding  tables  of  receipts  and  sales:  the  excess  sometimes 
reaches  one  fourth  of  the  receipts.  The  contractors  save  themselves 
from  loss  by  an  arrangement  by  which  the  stipulated  price  is  paid  for 
only  such  milk  as  is  sold  again  and  for  a  small  margin  in  excess  (equal 
to  5  per  cent  of  the  sales;  see  above  card).  All  surplus  beyond  this  is 
made  into  butter  by  the  contractors,  at  their  creameries,  on  the  farmers' 
14777— No.  L'O 2 


18 

account,  allowing-  eacli  month,  as  the  value  of  the  butter,  the  average 
of  the  jobbing  price  of  butter  quoted  by  the  chamber  of  commerce  dur- 
ing the  mouth  and  charging  4  cents  per  pound  for  making.  Thus  the 
farmer  is  sure  of  getting  at  least  butter  value  for  all  the  milk  he  can 
make.  To  protect  the  farmers  from  an  undue  extension  of  this  surplus 
privilege,  the  contractors  agree  not  to  extend  their  routes  or  enlarge 
their  territory.     The  advantages  of  this  surplus  system  are: 

(1)  The  market  is  more  steady  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  The  fig- 
ures above  show  that  the  price  has  been  very  uniform  for  many  years. 
The  surplus,  being  in  the  hands  of  the  large  dealers,  does  not  get  upon 
the  market,  and  the  supply  offered  to  the  retail  trade  by  the  contractors 
is  never  in  excess  of  the  demand. 

2)  The  contractors  have  a  large  reservoir  to  draw  from  when  sultry 
summer  weather  or  other  cause  increases  the  demand;  hence  the  market 
is  never  short  of  milk. 

(3)  The  farmers  find  a  market  for  more  milk  than  they  otherwise 
would,  though  the  surplus  portion  is  sold  at  much  less  than  the  other 
part.  The  butter  value  of  the  surplus  milk  for  the  year  1896,  less  the 
cost  of  making,  was  13  cents  per  can,  a  fraction  over  71  cents  per  hun- 
dred pounds.  For  1897  the  butter  value  of  a  can  of  milk  averaged  13£ 
cents,  a  little  better  than  for  1890. 

The  disadvantage  of  the  system  is  that  it  is  the  cause  of  much  fric- 
tion between  the  producers  and  the  contractors.  The  surplus  offers  a 
good  opportunity  to  increase  the  farmers'  natural  suspicion  of  the  con- 
tractors. The  application  of  the  system  is  blind  to  many  farmers,  some 
of  whom  even  question  the  honesty  of  the  contractors  in  accounting  for 
the  amount  of  the  surplus.  This  difference  is  further  intensified  by 
the  method  of  settling  with  the  farmers.  The  contractors,  for  their 
convenience,  ascertain  how  much  of  a  discount  the  butter  value  of  the 
surplus  would  create  on  the  whole  amount  of  milk  which  a  farmer  ships, 
and  in  making  their  payment  they  deduct  this  amount  from  what 
would  be  due  if  all  milk  shipped  had  been  sold  at  the  long  price. 
Hence  the  monthly  bills  are  not  written  for  the  proportionate  amount 
of  sale  milk  at,  for  instance,  20  cents,  plus  the  proportionate  amount  of 
surplus  milk  at,  for  instance,  13  cents;  but,  it  having  been  found  that 
the  amount  of  surplus  milk  and  its  butter  value  is  enough  to  reduce 
the  average  price  of  milk  at  a  20-ceut  station  lh  cents,  when  the  farmer 
makes  out  his  bill  for  his  full  shipment  at  20  cents  per  can  the  con- 
tractors discount  the  bill  li  cents  per  can  and  remit  the  balance. 

The  surplus  for  May,  1897 — the  butter  value  of  milk  being  11  cents 
per  can — amounted  to  an  average  discount  per  can  on  all  shipments  as 
follows : 

Cents. 

"Where  price  was  19  cents 2.26 

Where  price  was  20  cents.    2.54 

Where  price  was  21  cents 2.82 

Where  price  was  22  cents :>.  11 

Where  juice  was  23  cents 3.  39 


19 

In  this  way  the  contractors'  clerks  can  figure  the  accounts  quite 
rapidly:  but  the  method  increases  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  system, 
because  to  the  mind  of  the  farmer  the  butter  value  of  surplus  milk  cre- 
ates an  actual  discount  or  a  "  charge  back"  on  the  whole  of  his  bill. 

This  system  of  buying  all  the  milk  that  is  ottered  furuishes  shippers 
a  market  for  all  they  can  produce,  but  this  in  turn  tends  to  increase 
the  surplus,  which  reached  unusual  proportions  during  the  years  1896 
and  1897.  This,  coupled  with  the  low  price  of  butter,  made  the  dis- 
count for  those  years  more  than  twice  what  it  had  previously  been. 
The  records  of  milk  meetings  and  fanners'  gatherings  show  that  the 
surplus  is  the  great  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  the  burden  of  many  reso- 
lutions and  speeches  being  that  the  contractors  should  buy  "straight." 
The  contractors  have  sometimes  agreed  to  take  all  chances  of  surplus 
and  pay  a  straight  price  if  they  could  buy  for  2  cents  less.  Before  this 
system  was  introduced  there  was  much  complaint  at  the  irregularity 
of  the  amount  sold  to  the  contractors.  If  the  supply  ran  ahead  of  the 
demand,  the  farmers  would  receive  notice  to  keep  back  part  of  their 
supplies;  and  they  were  liable  to  be  obliged  to  make  butter  or  cheese 
in  varying  quantities  every  few  days.  This  was  a  great  inconvenience 
and  caused  much  grumbling,  which  was  remedied  by  the  contractors 
adopting  the  present  plan,  taking  all  produced  and  paying  butter  price 
for  the  surplus.  But  that  was  so  many  years  ago  that  the  improvement 
is  not  generally  remembered.  The  feeling  against  the  surplus  was  so 
strong  in  1889  that  the  matter  was  referred  to  the  State  board  of  arbi- 
tration, which  decided  that  the  principle  was  a  sound  one. 

It  should  be  stated  here  that  the  different  wholesale  firms  report 
their  receipts,  sales,  and  surplus  to  their  organization  and  to  the  Milk- 
Producers'  Union,  and  the  discount  is  figured  on  the  totals,  being  the 
same  to  all  farmers  at  equal  distances  from  the  city,  regardless  of  the 
contractors  to  whom  they  sell  or  the  amount  of  surplus  which  their 
individual  wholesaler  may  have  had. 

Retailing. — On  the  arrival  of  the  milk  cars  in  Boston  they  are  run 
onto  the  railroad  sidings  of  the  milk  contractors  from  9  to  11  o'clock 
a.  in.,  regardless  of  the  distance  the  cars  have  come.  The  peddlers  by 
this  time  have  finished  their  morning's  distribution  of  milk  and  their 
wagons  are  backed  to  the  contractors'  platforms  and  sheds  for  the  next 
day's  supply.  The  cans  are  quickly  transferred  from  the  cars  to  the 
peddlers'  wagons.  In  a  few  cases,  where  there  are  customers  for  several 
cans,  a  delivery  is  made  at  once,  but  most  of  this  milk  is  carried  to  the 
different  peddlers'  headquarters.  Here  the  milk  is  run  through  a  large 
mixer,  so  as  to  insure  uniform  quality.  Then  it  is  drawn  off  into  quart 
and  pint  cans,  of  tin,  and  placed  on  ice.  The  next  morning  about  2 
o'clock  the  peddler  starts  out  to  deliver  this  milk  to  the  customer,  leav- 
ing at  the  door  of  tenement,  flat,  and  dwelling  house  the  can  of  milk, 
usually  before  the  family  is  out  of  bed.  By  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
milk  is  in  the  city  about  eighteen  hours  before  reaching  the  consumer. 


20 

It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the  milk  is  delivered  iu  individual  cans, 
never  poured  or  dipped  from  the  large  can  to  the  consumer's  dish. 
According"  to  the  milk  inspector  of  the  municipality  of  Boston,  the 
number  of  persons  selling  milk  from  wagons  during  1890  was  598,  and 
the  number  of  shopkeepers  who  sold  milk  was  1,019.  In  Cambridge 
there  were  189  peddlers  and  111  store  milk  dealers.  The  numbers 
remained  practically  the  same  in  1897.  Nearly  all  of  the  peddlers 
use  wagons  of  the  same  style — the  body  like  an  express  wagon,  with  a 
rounded  canopy  top,  open  at  the  front  and  rear. 

Clean  cans. — When  the  retailers  go  to  the  wholesalers'  depots  for 
their  daily  supplies  they  usually  take  with  them  return  cans,  belonging 
to  the  wholesalers,  in  which  they  have  taken  their  supplies  on  a  pre- 
vious day.  These  cans  are  immediately  rushed  on  board  the  cars,  so 
that  the  latter  may  be  ready  with  as  little  delay  as  possible  to  be  drawn 
out  and  made  up  in  the  trains  for  returning.  On  account  of  this  pro- 
cedure the  cans  are  returned  to  the  farmers  unwashed,  and  sometimes 
in  a  very  filthy  condition,  for  a  can  may  have  been  delivered  by  the 
peddler  to  a  grocer  where  a  portion  of  the  contents  which  was  unsold  has 
soured  and  stuck  to  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  can  before  the  peddler 
calls  for  it  to  return  to  the  wholesaler;  in  exceptional  cases  the  can 
may  have  been  used  for  other  articles,  possibly  kerosene  oil.  The 
farmers  have  frequently  consulted  together  as  to  the  best  means  of 
bringing  some  pressure  to  bear  on  the  contractors  to  compel  them  to 
return  clean  cans.  This  feeling  has  gone  so  far  as  to  result  in  several 
attempts  to  induce  the  legislature  to  pass  compulsory  laws  on  the 
subject. 

The  contractors  make  two  excuses  for  this  way  of  doing  business. 
The  first  is  the  matter  of  expense;  they  claim  that  to  have  the  cans 
washed  before  returning  would  meaii  the  impossibility  of  getting  them 
onto  the  car  that  day,  and  the  necessit;  of  having  a  large  investment 
of  money  tied  up  in  a  triplicate  set  of  cans.  The  second  excuse  is 
that  even  if  they  washed  the  cans,  after  having  been  tightly  bunged  up 
in  the  car  and  on  the  road  for  several  hours,  they  would  be  unfit  for  use 
in  reshippiug  milk  without  being  scalded.  The  contractors  claim  that 
if  the  cans  are  sent  into  the  country  clean  many  farmers  will  neglect 
this  precaution,  and  that  the  next  day's  milk  would  reach  the  city  in 
worse  condition  than  when  the  cans  are  carefully  cleaned,  scalded,  and 
aired  at  the  dairy  before  putting  fresh  milk  into  them. 

Methods  of  producers  and  sh  ippers. — The  methods  pursued  by  the  milk- 
producing  farmers  who  supply  the  contractors  may  be  described  more 
in  detail,  as  follows: 

For  example,  a  neighborhood  may  be  taken  in  Windsor  or  Windham 
County,  Vt.,  from  which  the  milk  is  hauled  by  wagou  to  Bellows  Falls 
and  there  put  on  the  milk  car. 

The  process  by  which  the  milk  is  prepared  for  marketing  is  simple, 
though  it  requires  care  and  attention  to  preserve  an  equal  temperature. 


21 

The  morning's  milk  is  cooled  by  various  methods,  some  employing  ice, 
while  not  a  few  suspend  the  cans  in  a  well.  When  the  night's  milk  has 
been  cooled,  a  wood  stopper  is  placed  in  the  full  can,  upon  which  is 
pasted  a  small  adhesive  stamp  a  trifle  smaller  than  a  postage  stamp, 
and  on  this  is  printed  the  number  of  the  dairy,  as  well  as  the  number 
of  the  car  conveying  the  milk  from  Bellows  Falls  to  Boston. 

As  a  rule  neighboring  dairymen  have  an  arrangement  by  which  one 
of  their  number  takes  the  daily  product  to  the  main  highway,  where 
the  cans  are  picked  up  every  night  by  the  milk  wagon  and  the  "emp- 
ties" returned  by  the  same  conveyance  in  the  morning.  In  some  cases, 
however,  the  farmer  lives  3  or  4  miles  off  the  route,  and  of  course  is 
obliged  to  bring  his  own  milk. 

One  route  starts  from  Chester,  Windsor  County,  the  distance  from 
the  driver's  house  to  Bellows  Falls  being  16  miles.  This  driver  receives 
3  cents  per  can  of  Si  quarts  (or  18J  pounds)  for  carting,  and  this  is,  of 
course,  paid  by  the  farmer.  With  a  four-horse  covered  wagon,  this 
collector  starts  from  his  home  every  night  in  the  week  at  9  o'clock, 
going  by  the  most  direct  road  to  Rockingham,  thence  to  Bellows  Falls. 
At  present  this  route  furnishes  180  cans,  which  are  picked  up  in  differ- 
ent places  along  the  highway  to  Barton ville.  It  takes  about  six  hours 
to  make  the  trip,  which  could  be  done  in  considerably  less  time  but  for 
the  work  of  picking  up  the  cans.  The  route  is  not  particularly  pleasant 
by  night,  and  especially  is  this  true  in  stormy  weather, yet  for  the  3G5 
nights  in  the  year  this  driver  faithfully  performs  his  duty,  whether  in 
storm  or  starlight.  The  trip  is  not  infrequently  attended  with  disa- 
greeable  arid  even  dangerous  features,  as  was  the  case  daring  the  floods 
ol  1897,  when  the  highway  was  washed  out  in  several  places,  necessi- 
tating a  roundabout  trip  of  several  miles  through  Saxtons  River.  But 
the  milk  Mas  delivered  every  morning  at  the  car  before  the  time  of 
leaving  Bellows  Falls  for  Boston. 

On  arriving  at  the  car  the  milk  is  weighed  by  those  in  charge  and 
the  weights  credited  to  the  numbers  representing  the  respective  dairy- 
men. The  milk  car  starts  daily  at  5.30  a.  in.  and  reaches  Boston  about 
four  hours  later,  and  twenty-eight  or  twenty-nine  hours  after  the  morn- 
ing milking  of  the  day  before.  Since  the  establishment  of  this  route, 
in  the  year  1X90,  the  business  gradually  increased  until  June,  1897, 
when  the  shipments  amounted  to  nearly  700  cans  a  day. 

Boston  system  summed  up. — The  advantage  of  this  system  of  handling 
milk  by  large  wholesalers,  combined  into  an  association,  is  that  the 
business  is  in  the  hands  of  solvent  parties,  who  can  be  relied  upon  to 
pay  the  farmers  promptly  the  money  due  them;  the  business  is  done  in 
a  uniform,  methodical  way,  all  producers  being  treated  alike;  there  is 
more  publicity  to  the  business  than  there  would  be  if  the  milk  were 
sold  to  a  great  many  small,  isolated  peddlers.  The  existing  Boston 
system  maintains  a  more  steady  market  than  would  otherwise  be  possi- 
ble, by  keeping  off  from   it  an  undue  surplus  which  would  break  the 


22 

price;  consequently  this  arrangement  insures  better  prices  to  farmers 
than  they  would  otherwise  get.  Another  advantage  is  in  the  fact  that 
this  large  combination  of  wholesalers  doing  business  in  a  systematic 
way,  with  regular  chemists,  etc.,  is  a  powerful  factor  in  elevating  the 
quality  of  milk  on  the  market  and  helping  to  bring  it  up  to  a  satisfac- 
tory standard.  With  good  laws  to  start  with,  to  which  reference  will 
be  made  further  on,  and  a  strong  financial  interest  working  to  sustain 
these  laws,  a  great  deal  is  done  for  the  quality  of  milk. 

There  are  disadvantage-*  connected  with  the  Boston  system,  some  of 
which  have  been  sufficiently  described.  Another  is  that  it  does  not 
stimulate  any  advance  in  quality  of  milk  beyond  meeting  the  standard 
required  by  law. 

Other  milk  supply. — It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  milk  brought 
into  the  city  by  the  contractors  is  about  three  quarters  of  the  whole  sup- 
ply. A  portion  of  the  other  one-fourth  comes  in  by  railroad,  brought 
by  x»eddlers  who  go  into  the  country  and  buy  direct  from  the  farmers. 
These  peddlers  usually  buy  on  the  basis  of  the  contractors'  prices,  for 
these  prices  set  the  pace  for  about  all  of  the  milk  business,  and,  to  a 
large  extent,  govern  it.  But  these  peddlers  buy  only  what  their  ordi- 
nary trade  will  take.  If  they  occasionally  need  extra  milk  they  can  buy 
it  of  the  contractors.  Though  these  peddlers  pay  no  more  than  the 
regular  price,  the  farmer  gets  the  full  price  for  all  that  he  sells,  because 
the  peddler  whom  he  supplies  never  lias  a  surplus  for  which  to  pay  a 
lower  price.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  of  such  business  there  is  the 
more  the  surplus  tends  to  increase  in  the  hands  of  the  contractors. 
Their  burdensome  surplus  is  a  convenience  in  a  pinch  to  the  outside 
peddler,  who  competes  with  them  for  milk  and  for  customers,  but  who 
carries  none  of  the  inconvenience  of  a  surplus. 

Another  portion  of  the  milk  of  the  Greater  Boston  is  produced 
within  its  limits.  This  is  not  much  of  a  factor  in  the  city  proper,  but 
the  geographical  and  business  reason- which  lead  to  the  grouping  of 
several  municipalities  as  the  Greater  Boston  necessarily  include  a  few 
places  which  produce  nearly  all  of  their  local  milk  supply.  In  one  or  two 
instances — Milton  especially — the  place  supplies  milk  to  some  of  its 
neighbors.  Over  7,000  cows  are  kept  in  the  Greater  Boston,  located  as 
follows : 

Boston 850  Maiden 169 

Clu-lsea S7  Medford 2*2 

Revere 168  Melrose 214 

Winthrop S3  Newton 1,212 

Quincy 656  Somerville 314 

Milton 804  Stoneham 311 

Winchester 240  Arlington 236 

Woburn 362  I'.elmont 173 

YVatertown 281  Sangria 544 

YValtham 882  Lynn TU2 

A  third  source  of  supply  of  outside  milk  is  from  territory  contiguous 
to  the  Greater  Boston,  which  can  he  reached  by  a  drive  of  10  to  15 


23 

miles.  This  region  is  quite  thickly  settled,  and  consumes  considerable 
milk,  yet  it  also  produces  much  milk  to  sell  in  Boston,  which  is  brought 
in  by  wagons.  The  inspector  of  the  city  of  Boston  reports  5,232  cans 
sold  daily  in  his  jurisdiction,  aside  from  the  railroad  milk.  The  milk 
in  other  cities  and  towns  of  the  Greater  Boston  not  brought  by  rail 
must  be  5,000  cans  more.  Two  of  the  largest  towns  for  milk  shipments 
by  team  are  Dedham  and  Bedford,  from  each  of  which  nearly  1,000 
cans  are  daily  hauled. 

This  nearby  milk,  although  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  city  supply, 
has  shown  a  tendency  to  increase  of  late;  its  competition  with  railroad 
milk  was  unusually  severe  during  the  last  few  months  of  1897.  This 
has  been  because  milk  has  been  maintained  at  such  an  even  price, 
because  there  has  been  an  unusual  disparity  between  the  sale-milk 
value  and  the  butter  value  of  the  product,  and  because  prices  of  other 
farm  products  were  so  depressed  that  milk  was  relatively  the  most 
profitable  farm  product,  in  very  many  cases. 

PROVIDENCE. 

Providence,  the  second  in  size  of  the  New  England  cities,  has  an 
estimated  population  of  150,000.  The  best  estimates  obtainable  place 
the  milk  consumption  at  75,000  quarts  per  day.  This  amounts  to 
27,375.0(10  quarts  per  year.  This  milk  is  sold  from  107  peddlers'  wagons 
and  900  stores,  restaurants,  bakeries,  etc.  Nearly  all  of  the  milk  is 
produced  within  20  miles  of  the  city.  Most  of  the  milk  that  is  brought 
in  wagons  comes  an  average  distance  of  12  miles,  though  a  little  comes 
20  miles  each  day.  The  balance  is  carried  by  railroad.  One  car  brings 
in  9,500  quarts  per  day.  This  car  starts  from  Willimantic,  Conn.,  a 
distance  of  60  miles.  About  4,000  quarts  per  day  are  carried  on  the 
other  railroads  in  express  and  baggage  cars.  The  milk  is  shipped,  for 
the  most  part,  in  cans  similar  in  general  style  to  the  Boston  milk  can, 
but  containing  9.}  and  10^  quarts. 

The  selling  of  milk  from  stores  is  more  prevalent  than  in  many  other 
cities  of  New  England.  It  is  estimated  that  almost  half  of  the  milk 
consumed  in  this  city  is  sold  from  stores  instead  of  being  delivered 
from  house  to  house  by  peddlers.  Most  of  the  railroad  milk  goes 
directly  to  stores. 

The  price  of  milk  for  the  last  few  years  has  been  quite  uniform,  con- 
sinners  paying  usually  a  cent  less  in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter. 
The  retail  summer  price  ranges  from  5  to  7  cents  and  the  winter  price 
from  (i  to  8  cents.  The  wholesale  price  per  can  in  the  summer  is  at  the 
rate  of  15  or  10  cents  per  gallon,  and  1!»  or  20  cents  per  gallon  in  the 
winter.  About  one-third  of  the  nearby  milk  is  sold  by  the  producers 
themselves,  who  drive  into  the  city  every  morning  with  their  supplies, 
retailing  from  house  to  house.  About  two  thirds  of  the  nearby  milk  is 
sold  by  peddlers  who  buy  milk  from  the  farmers.  Some  of  them  buy 
from  middlemen,  who  pick  up  milk  from  the  farmers  and  haul  it  to  the 
city.     In  these  cases  the  peddlers  do  not  see  or  know  the  men  who 


24 

produce  the  milk  for  them.  These  middlemen,  however,  differ  from 
those  in  Boston  in  that  they  occupy  a  much  less  conspicuous  place  in 
the  business  than  the  Boston  contractors  and  are  hardly  more  than 
agents  and  teamsters  for  the  city  peddlers. 

The  producers  receive  11  to  12  cents  per  gallon  for  milk  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  15  or  1G  cents  in  the  winter. 

The  population  of  Providence  has  increased  from  120,000,  in  1886,  to 
150,000  in  189G,  or  25  per  cent;  but  the  consumption  of  milk  appears  to 
have  increased  about  122  per  cent,  only  33,700  quarts  per  day  being 
reported  in  1880.  These  figures  show  that  there  has  been  greatly 
increased  consumption  of  milk  per  capita  during  the  last  few  years. 

Milk  is  from  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours  old  when  it  reaches  the 
consumers  in  Providence. 

OTHER    CITIES. 

The  reports  from  the  other  Xew  England  cities  are,  for  the  most  park 
without  novel  features.  To  go  into  the  details  about  each  city  would  be 
mere  repetition,  to  a  large  extent.  The  milk  generally  is  brought  into 
the  city  early  in  the  morning  by  retailers  who  are,  for  the  most  part,  pro- 
ducers. In  some  instances  peddlers  buy  the  supplies  of  farmers  and  act 
only  as  middlemen.  In  other  cases  the  farmer  supplements  his  own 
supply  by  buying  from  his  neighbors.  The  milk  is  mostly  produced 
within  a  dozen  or  fifteen  miles  of  the  city  where  it  is  consumed.  The 
night's  milk  is  not  over  12  hours  old  when  it  reaches  the  consumers; 
the  morning's  milk  not  over  0.  Consequently  less  pains  are  taken  in 
cooling  and  caring  for  the  milk  than  when  it  becomes  48  to  72  hours  old 
before  reaching  the  con  sinner.  Six  cents  per  quart  is  the  average  price 
to  consumers.  In  some  cities  the  price  drops  to  5  cents  in  the  summer, 
aud  in  a  few  instances  7  cents  is  reached  in  the  winter. 

The  usual  method  of  distributing  milk  is  by  pouring  from  the  8i-quart 
cans  into  the  individual  cans,  pitchers,  or  bowls  of  customers  at  their 
doors,  although  some  peddlers  carry  individual  cans.  The  use  of  glass 
bottles  is  comparatively  rare,  though  increasing.  In  many  cities 
the  old-fashioned  wagons  are  giving  way  to  vehicles  built  low-down 
expressly  for  the  milk  business.  In  many  cases  farmers  who  sell  milk 
pay  some  attention  to  vegetables  and  small  fruits,  which  utilizes  help, 
insures  an  advantageous  rotation  of  tillage,  helps  out  the  supply  of 
manure,  and  assures  a  retail  market  for  eggs,  fruit,  or  vegetables. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  has  a  population  of  110,000  at  present,  and  annu- 
ally consumes  2,070,000  cans,  which  is  sold  from  050  wagons  and  stores. 
It  is  retailed  for  the  most  part  at  0  cents  per  quart,  summer  and  winter. 
In  the  city  and  suburbs  are  a  number  of  superior  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
herds,  for  whose  milk  better  prices  are  obtained.  Worcester  has  a  very 
efficient  milk  dealers  and  producers'  association,  which  does  much  to 
promote  uniformity  in  price  and  to  keep  up  the  quality.  Many  of  the 
Worcester  milkmen  are  market  gardeners,  who  combine  the  two  kiuds 
of  farming  to  advantage. 


25 

Most  of  the  Lowell,  Mass.,  daily  supply  of  3,511  cans  comes  directly 
from  the  farmers  within  a  few  miles  of  the  city.  But  a  Boston  milk 
train  passes  through  the  city,  and  at  times  a  little  railroad  milk  is  left. 
Milk  retails  for  the  most  part  for  5  cents  per  quart  in  the  summer  and 
6  cents  in  the  winter.  One  hundred  and  seventy-six  milk  dealers' 
licenses  are  issued  in  this  city.     The  population  is  84,000, 

Burlington,  Yt.,  uses  about  305,000  gallons  annually,  which  is  sold  by 
about  110  peddlers,  many  of  whom  are  producers.  The  population  in 
1890  was  15,000,  but  it  is  estimated  now  at  about  20,000.  The  per  cap- 
ita consumption  of  milk  has  increased  materially  during  the  past  ten 
years.  The  trade  has  nearly  doubled,  while  the  increase  in  population 
is  about  one-third.  Prices  at  retail  range  from  1  to  0  cents  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  from  5  to  7  cents  in  the  winter. 

Augusta,  Me.,  with  a  population  of  12,000,  uses  1,600  to  2,000  quarts 
of  milk  daily,  mostly  retailed  at  a  uniform  price  of  6  cents  the  year 
around.     The  farmers  who  produce  the  milk  for  the  most  part  retail  it. 

Portland,  Me.,  uses  the  milk  of  about  4,000  cows,  which  amounts  to 
about  2,250,000  gallons  a  year.  Some  of  this  milk  is  sent  in  by  railroad 
in  baggage  and  express  cars.  This  is  retailed  by  peddlers,  who  are 
mostly  middlemen.  The  milkmen  supplying  the  Portland  market  have 
an  organization. 

New  Bedford,  Mass.,  has  151  licensed  dealers  retailing  24,000  or 
25,000  quarts  per  day;  the  retail  prices  are  mostly  0  and  7  cents.  Pro- 
ducers largely  retail  their  own  supplies. 

Taunton,  Mass.,  has  24  licensed  dealers  and  uses  about  12,000  quarts 
per  day.     The  retail  price  is  6  cents  summer  and  winter. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  licenses  152  regular  retail  dealers.  An  average  of 
26,000  quarts  is  sold  daily.    All  is  produced  within  10  miles  of  the  city. 

THE    CREAM   TRADE. 

The  cream  trade  has  increased  rapidly  in  Boston,  Providence,  and 
other  cities  during  the  past  few  years.  Formerly  there  was  a  small 
supply  and  limited  demand.  The  business  was  not  pushed.  A  person 
who  wanted  cream  could  in  most  eases  be  supplied  by  his  milkman,  and 
the  large  Boston  contractors  did  quite  a  cream  trade.  Still,  cream  was 
generally  looked  upon  as  a  special  luxury.  The  increasing  use  of  the 
separator  helped  to  develop  the  business,  making  it  more  easy  than 
ever  before  to  secure  sweet  cream  of  good  keeping  qualities. 

The  great  increase  in  the  cream  business,  however,  has  been  due  to 
the  systematic  business-like  push  and  enterprise  of  a  few  Maine  cream- 
cries.  This  1  nisi  ness  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighties.  The  cream 
is  sent  in  0-gallon  cans,  packed  in  ice,  by  express  on  fast  trains,  reach- 
ing Boston  about  0  o'clock  in  the  morning.  It  is  there  received  by 
agents  of  the  proprietors,  put  into  half  pint,  pint,  and  quart  glass  jars, 
and  delivered  at  once.  It  is  not  only  delivered  direct  to  families,  but 
is  a  common  and  staple  article  of  merchandise  in  the  grocery  stores  in 


26 


Boston,  Providence,  and  other  portions  of  southeastern  New  England. 
Many  stores  which  took  experimentally  only  one  or  two  cans  to  begin 
with,  found  their  trade  rapidly  increased,  as  the  public  quickly  "caught 
on"  to  the  possibility  of  getting  cream  of  reliable  quality  and  good  con- 
dition for  keeping. 

This  cream  is  of  uniform  quality,  heavy  and  rich,  being  about  45  per 
cent  butter  fat,  is  put  up  in  attractive  and  convenient  form,  and  keeps 
well.     This  has  stimulated  a  growing  demand. 

Such  signs  as -'Bangor  cream,"  "Hampden  cream,'1  "  Wallingford 
cream,"  are  now  a  frequent  and  familiar  sight  in  a  majority  of  grocery 
and  provision  stores.  The  cream  is  retailed  in  Boston  at  60  cents  per 
(piart. 

One  establishment  shipping  cream  from  Maine  makes  the  following 
report  of  its  business  for  the  last  three  years,  showing  the  increase  in 
the  use  of  cream.     The  figures  are  for  gallons: 

Thick  cream,  47  per  cent  hatter  fat. 


Boston  and  vicinity 33,  400  40,  141  43,  542 

Beverly,  Lynn,and  Salem 8,033  8.811  9,432 

Places  outside  of  Massachusetts 1,531  1,476  1,502 

Total 43,030  50,428  54,476 


First 

six 

months 

Of  1897. 


28,  034 
4,333 
1,564 


33,  931 


Thin  cream,  IS  per  cent  butter  fat. 


Boston  and  vicinity 

Lynn,  Salem,  and  Beverly 


Total 


667       6,  645     12,  G18 
702       1,969 


First 

six 

months 

of  1897. 


4,  925 

(114 


667        7,347  I  14,587  ,       5.839 


Other  Maine  creameries  are  also  making  large  shipments.  Faster 
railroad  trains  are  said  to  be  necessary  to  still  further  develop  this 
cream  trade.  The  creameries  are  mostly  proprietary,  buying  milk  of 
the  farmers.  As  a  rule  there  are  no  particular  feeding  materials  to 
which  objections  are  raised  to  the  farmers  using,  but  much  pains  are 
taken  to  impress  the  great  importance  of  cleanliness  in  every  detail  of 
the  business. 

SKIM    MILK. 


The  skim  milk  problem  is  of  considerable  importance  in  the  city  of 
Boston.  As  we  have  shown  above,  a  great  deal  of  the  surplus  milk 
is  made  into  butter  after  it  reaches  the  city.  Consequently,  there  is  a 
supply  of  skim  milk  more  than  usual  in  such  a  center.  A  great  deal  of 
this  is  allowed  to  run  into  the  sewers,  as  there  is  no  market  for  it;  some 
is  sold,  and  some  is  returned  to  the  farmers,  but  the  greater  part  is 


27 

thrown  away.  This  is  a  great  loss  of  food  material,  and  if  the  people 
of  the  city  could  realize  the  food  value  of  skim  milk,  and  could  buy  it 
at  a  reasonable  price,  much  good  would  result.  But  as  ordinarily  sold, 
a  quart  of  skim  milk  too  often  replaces  a  quart  of  whole  milk,  and 
thus  to  that  extent  injures  the  sale  of  whole  milk.  Further  than  that, 
slum  milk  is  to  quite  an  extent  used  to  adulterate  whole  milk;  just 
how  much  no  one  can  say.  When  milk  is  adulterated  with  water,  the 
amount  of  solids  not  fat  is  reduced  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  fat, 
and  the  abnormally  low  amount  of  solids  not  fat  is  evidence  of  the 
work  of  adulteration.  But  when  the  adulterant  used  is  skim  milk,  the 
solids  not  fat  remain  the  normal  amount;  consequently,  the  adultera- 
tion is  more  difficult  to  detect;  hence,  more  dangerous. 

In  the  other  cities  there  is  something  of  a  sale  of  skim  milk,  but  it  is 
much  less,  that  in  Lowell,  for  instance,  amounting  to  2,2:17  quarts  per 
day.  The  most  of  this  skim  milk  sold  out  of  Boston  is  sold  honestly  as 
a  valuable  food  product. 

The  use  of  buttermilk  is  not  so  extensive  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  yet 
in  some  cities  considerable  goes  into  consumption.  In  Lowell  some- 
thing like  850  (piarts  per  day  are  sold.  In  Worcester  the  product  of 
one  or  two  creameries  is  retailed  each  day.  But  speaking  in  a  general 
way,  the  sale  of  buttermilk  is  quite  small. 

CONDENSED   MILK. 

The  use  of  condensed  milk  is  increasing,  especially  in  Boston.  A 
large  city  collects  many  people  who  are  compelled  to  keep  house  in 
restricted  quarters;  in  not  a  few  instances  shop  and  office  girls  practice 
light  housekeeping  in  a  siugle  room.  In  these  and  other  cases  the  can 
of  condensed  milk  is  a  convenient  article,  ISTew  England  has  six  con- 
densed -milk  factories,  and  the  product  from  the  West  and  even  from 
abroad  is  also  sold  in  the  grocery  and  provision  stores. 

MILK    CONSUMPTION    PER    CAPITA. 

The  consumption  of  milk  per  capita  is  a  very  difficult  thing  to  get  at, 
and  statistics  on  this  point  must  necessarily  be  more  or  less  faulty.  An 
effort  has  been  made  to  gain  information  on  this  subject  and  a  careful 
investigation  of  the  quantity  of  milk  sold  in  a  number  of  cities  has 
been  made,  and  the  amount  ascertained  has  been  divided  by  the  popu- 
lation. The  result  is  remarkably  uniform,  as  follows  (the  figures  indi- 
cate hundredths  of  a  quart  used  daily  per  capita  of  population): 


Boston is 

Lowell 33 

Hartford 17 

Nashua  12 


Haverhill 45 

Burlington 50 

Worcester 44 


Nashua  41 

Lawrence 40 

Pittstiekl 30 


In  all  of  these  cases  it  must  be  remembered  that  an  element  of  uncer- 
tainty exists  in  the  degree  of  accuracy  in  the  reports  cf  the  amount  of 
milk  sold  with  which  we  have  been   furnished,  but  the  results  are  so 


28 

uniform  that  it  is  hardly  fair  to  suppose  that  an  equal  error  could  have 
been  made  in  every  case.  Therefore  it  .seems  reasonable  to  assume,  in 
a  general  way.  that  the  consumption  of  milk  in  Massachusetts  cities  is 
a  little  less  than  a  pint  per  person  per  day — a  little  over  four-tenths  of  a 
quart.  In  no  case  does  this  include  the  sales  of  skim  milk,  condensed 
milk,  or  cream. 

MILK  LAWS   AND   INSPECTION. 

LEGAL    STANDARD    AND    ADULTERATION. 

All  of  the  New  England  States  have  laws  prohibiting  the  sale  of 
adulterated  or  watered  milk,  or  milk  from  which  a  portion  of  the  cream 
has  been  removed.  All  of  the  States  except  Connecticut  have  a  statute 
standard  for  milk. 

Massachusetts  prohibits  the  sale  of  milk  "not  of  standard  quality," 
as  well  as  of  adulterated  milk,  and  the  following  statute  defines  standard 
milk: 

If  the  milk  is  shown  upon  analysis  t<>  contain  less  than  thirteen  per  cent  of  milk 
solids,  or  to  contain  less  than  nine  and  three-tenths  per  cent  of  milk  solids  exclusive 
of  fat,  it  shall  he  deemed  for  the  purposes  <>('  this  act  t<>  he  not  <>f  good  standard 
quality,  except  during  the  months  of  April,  May.  June.  July,  and  August,  when  milk 
containing  less  than  twelve  per  cent  of  milk  solids,  or  less  than  nine  per  cent  of  milk 
solids  exclusive  of  fat.  or  less  than  three  per  cent  of  fat,  shall  he  deemed  to  he  not 
of  good  standard  quality. 

Nearly  all  of  the  eases  entered  in  court  for  the  violation  of  these  milk 
laws  complain  of  the  offender  for  selling,  or  having  in  his  possession  or 
custody  with  intent  to  sell,  "milk  not  of  standard  quality,"  instead  of 
"adulterated  or  watered  milk.*' 

The  Rhode  Island  law  provides  that — 

If  the  milk  shall  he  shown  upon  analysis  to  contain  more  than  eighty-eight  per 
centum  of  watery  fluids,  or  to  contain  less  than  twelve  per  centum  of  milk  solids, 
or  less  than  two  and  one-half  per  centum  of  milk  fats,  it  shall  he  deemed  for  t lie 
purpose  of  said  sections  to  he  adulterated. 

The  Xew  Hampshire  law  says  that  if  milk  has  less  that  13  per  cent 
of  milk  solids  said  fact  "shall  be  prima  facie  evidence"  that  the  milk 
is  adulterated.  But  evidence  that  milk  has  less  than  13  per  cent  solids 
is  frequently  rebutted  by  producing  or  offering  to  produce  some  cow 
which  gives  milk  of  less  than  13  per  cent  solids,  and  therefore  the 
whole  law  is  nullified. 

In  Maine,  "when  milk  shall  be  found  to  contain  over  88  per  cent  of 
water  it  shall  be  deemed  prima  facie  evidence  that  said  milk  has  been 
watered,  and  when  milk  by  the  analysis  aforesaid  shall  be  found  to 
contain  less  than  12  per  cent  of  solids  and  less  than  3  per  cent  of  fat  it 
shall  be  deemed,  prima  facie,  milk  from  which  cream  has  been  taken." 
This  is  similar  to  the  New  Hampshire  law,  but  we  have  heard  no  com- 
plaints from  Maine  over  the  words  "prima  facie." 

Vermont,  like  Massachusetts,  prohibits  the  saleof  milk  "not  of  good 
standard  quality,"  as  well  as  adulterated  milk,  milk  from  which  a  por- 


29 


tion  of  the  cream  has  been  removed,  etc. 
standard  milk  as  follows : 


The  Vermont  statute  defines 


Standard  milk  shall  contain  not  less  than  twelve  and  oue-half  per  cent  of  solids, 
or  not  less  than  nine  and  one-fourth  of  total  solids  exclusive  of  fat,  except  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  when  it  shall  contain  not  less  than  twelve  per  cent  of 
total  solids. 

The  laws  of  the  several  States  also  have  regulations  for  promoting 
houesty  in  sales  of  skim  milk,  such  as  labeling  cans,  etc. 
Wine  measure  is  by  law  the  standard  measure. 

OFFICIAL    INSPECTION. 

All  of  the  States  except  Vermont  and  Connecticut  have  special  laws 
providing  for  the  enforcement  of  these  milk  regulations. 

In  Massachusetts,  cities  are  required  and  towns  are  allowed  to 
appoint  milk  inspectors.  In  Boston  the  present  milk  inspector  is  a 
man  of  ability  and  energy.  He  has  a  respectable  salary  and  sufficient 
appropriation  for  collectors  of  samples,  laboratory,  etc  Hence  the  work 
of  milk  inspection  in  that  city  is  very  efficiently  performed.  The  follow- 
ing statistics  of  his  work  show  how  thorough  it  is,  and  also,  inferen- 
tially.  something  of  the  quality  of  the  Boston  supply,  the  ratio  of 
samples  taken  to  court  cases  being  very  small. 


Year. 

Samples 
taken. 

Cases  in 
court. 

(  ^e^ 

Cases  in 
court. 

1886 

8.7Q1 
9,484 

13,  853 

88 
07 
220 

1893 «. 13  023 

29,; 

1888 

1895 12  587 

3 1  fi 

1890 

1897 12.295 

129 

In  a  number  of  other  Massachusetts  cities — Lowell,  for  instance — good 
work  is  also  done;  but  in  most  cases  the  salary  is  nominal  and  the  work 
corresponds,  though  most  of  the  inspectors  earn  more  than  they  get. 
Very  few  of  the  towns  avail  themselves  of  the  permission  to  appoint 
inspectors.  To  cover  the  tield  where  local  inspection  is  weak,  the  State 
board  of  health  and  the  State  dairy  bureau  are  also  given  authority 
to  enforce  the  dairy  laws.  The  following  statistics  show  the  work  of 
the  board  of  health,  scattered  over  the  State: 


rear. 

Samples 

taken. 

lear. 

Samples 

taken. 

<  'ourt 
cases. 

1890 

2.  726 

:;.  271 

24 
49 

n 

1893  ... 

1894  ... 
1897  . . . 

3,073 

3,  551 
6,104 

07 

1891 ." 

L892 

- 

Convictions  followed  in  about  90  per  cent  of  the  cases. 

Rhode  Island  lias  a  law  similar  to  Massachusetts  as  regards  local 
milk  inspectors.  New  Hampshire  law  permits  the  appointment  of  such 
officers.  In  .Maine,  cities  and  towns  of  not  less  than  .">. <><><>  inhabitants 
must  appoint  milk  inspectors.     In  most  cases,  however,  in  all  of  these 


30 

States  there  is  little  inspection  and  in  many  cases  no  inspector.  Par- 
ticular mention  should  be  made  of  the  good  work  in  Providence,  11.  I., 
Nashua,  N.  H.,  and  Hartford,  Conn.  The  inspector  of  the  latter  city 
is  appointed  under  the  provisions  of  a  city  ordinance. 

The  regulations  in  the  different  States  as  to  the  duties  and  authorities 
of  milk  inspectors  are  similar.     The  inspectors  and  collectors  of  sain 
pies  employed  by  them  are  authorized  to  enter  all  places  where  milk  is 
stored  or  kept  for  sale  and  all  carriages  used  for  the  conveyance  of 
milk  and  take  samples  for  analysis  from  all  such  places  or  carriages. 

The  laws  of  the  different  States  where  there  are  milk  inspectors  pro- 
vide for  registering  and  licensing  milk  dealers  for  a  nominal  fee.  This 
is  done  for  the  purpose  of  securing  proper  identification  of  the  dealer. 

The  legal  supervision  hitherto  noticed  has  related  almost  entirely  to 
the  commercial  fraud  of  selling  less  food  than  the  purchaser  supposes 
he  is  receiving  for  his  money — i.  e.,  milk  watered,  skimmed,  or  naturally 
of  less  than  average  quality. 

SANITARY   LAWS   AND   INSPECTION. 

All  of  the  States  have  laws  relative  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  milk 
supply.  Massachusetts,  Maine,  lihode  Island,  and  New  Hampshire 
prohibit  the  sale  of  milk  from  sick  or  diseased  cows  or  cows  fed  upon 
the  refuse  of  breweries  or  distilleries  or  upon  any  substance  deleterious 
to  its  quality.  Connecticut  prohibits  the  sale  of  "impure  milk"  and 
milk  from  cows  which  shall  have  been  adjudged  by  the  commission 
upon  diseases  of  domestic  animals  to  be  affected  with  tuberculosis  or 
other  blood  disease.  A  Massachusetts  law  imposes  a  fine  upon  u  who- 
ever knowingly  feeds  or  has  in  his  possession  with  intent  to  feed  to 
any  milch  cow  any  garbage,  refuse,  or  offal  collected  by  any  city  or 
town." 

There  is,  however,  no  especial  sanitary  inspection  of  milk  and  its 
sources  in  any  New  England  town  or  city,  and  cases  are  rarely  brought 
in  court  for  violation  of  any  of  the  above  sanitary  laws.  The  milk 
inspection  now  in  vogue  relates  almost  exclusively  to  commercial  frauds 
rather  than  to  health  matters.  The  Massachusetts  state  board  of 
health  has  done  some  good  work  in  investigating  several  typhoid-fever 
epidemics,  which  in  a  number  of  cases  have  been  traced  to  the  milk 
supply.  Local  boards  of  health,  however,  have  considerable  authority, 
and  in  several  cases  they  have  issued  orders  or  made  regulations  in 
advance  of  the  average  practice  of  the  State.  Hartford,  Conn.,  Port 
land,  Me.,  aud  Lynn,  Mass.,  are  instances.  The  contagious-cattle 
disease  law  of  Massachusetts  provides  for  a  cattle  inspector  in  each 
town,  who  makes  a  semiannual  inspection  of  neat  stock,  quarantining 
suspected  animals,  which  are  subsequently  tuberculin-tested,  and  if 
found  to  be  diseased  are  destroyed.  In  a  U>w  instances — Pittsfield,  for 
example — the  milk  inspector  and  cuttle  inspector  are  one  and  the  same 
person,  which  is  a  decided  advantage. 


31 

The  milk  inspector  of  Nashua,  N.  H.,  has  a  unique  and  commendable 
system  of  sanitary  inspection  of  the  milk  supply  of  that  city,  which  is 
said  to  work  well.  Although  his  official  powers  are  confined  to  the 
city  limits  and  to  the  commercial  fraud  of  selling  adulterated  or  low- 
grade  milk,  all  peddlers — mostly  producers — are  required  to  answer  the 
following  questions  when  they  register: 

1.  Name  of  owner?  2.  Number  of  cows ?  3.  Number  of  each  breed?  4.  Food  of 
cows?  5.  How  is  manure  stored?  6.  Quantity  of  milk  produced  per  day?  7.  Where 
is  milk  stored?  8.  How  is  milk  cooled?  9.  Temperature  of  milk  when  sold.' 
10.  Source  of  water  supply  for  stock  and  for  washing  cans?  11.  Distance  of  water 
supply  from  barnyard;  from  privy  vault;  from  cesspool?  12.  Are  any  cows  sick 
upon  your  premises;  if  so,  how  many,  and  with  what  disease?  13.  Are  any 
persons  engaged  in  handling  milk  sick? 

The  inspector  also  calls  from  time  to  time  on  the  farmers  who  pro- 
duce milk  for  the  city,  even  when  they  reside  out  of  his  official  juris- 
diction. He  makes  such  investigation  of  the  premises  as  he  is  permitted, 
and  reports  to  the  board  of  aldermen  the  condition  of  affairs.  The 
board  then  orders  the  report  published  in  the  local  papers.  To  most 
milk  producers  the  publicity  of  an  unfavorable  milk  report  is  more  of 
a  punishment  than  a  court  fine,  while  a  favorable  report  is  a  valuable 
advertisement.  Hence,  as  much  is  accomplished  as  if  there  were  more 
stringent  laws,  and  there  is  none  of  the  friction  that  might  arise  from 
over-officiousness  or  unpopular  official  prying.  He  also  issues  the 
following: 

[Circular.] 

City  of  Nashua,  N.  H., 
Department  of  Milk  Inspection. 

The  importance  of  education  in  the  better  care  of  milk  is  so  great  that  I  feel  it  a 
duly  to  call  attention  to  certain  precautions  necessary  to  a  good  product.  The 
average  farmer  has  so  many  cares  that  he  sometimes  fails  to  give  this  important  sub- 
ject proper  attention. 

Milk  in  the  udder  of  the  healthy  cow  contains  none  of  the  microorganisms  d 
fermentation  or  decay,  and  could  it  lie  drawn  thence  into  an  hermetically  sealed 
receptacle,  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  air,  it  would  keep  without  change  for 
an  indefinite  time.  Of  course  this  is  nut  practicable  in  an  ordinary  dairy,  hut  care 
can  certainly  he  exercised  that  the  surrounding  atmosphere  with  which  it  does 
come  in  contact  is  as  free  as  possible  from  germs,  odors,  or  taints,  tor  these  the  milk 
absorbs  with  great  rapidity. 

Milk  which  has  stood  for  ten  minutes  in  an  open  vessel  in  a  tainted  atmosphere 
will  he  found  to  contain  from  10,000  to  100,000  germs  per  cubic  centimeter  (a  cubic 
centimeter  represents  about  one-third  of  a  cubic  inch),  while  in  two  hours  from 
2,000,000  to  5,000,000  germs  will  be  found  per  cubic  centimeter.  This  prodigious 
increase  can  be  stopped  by  removing  the  milk  to  a  proper  cooler.  I  have  explained 
the  necessity  of  pure  water  and  wholesome  food  for  cows  so  often  before  that  I 
will  not  repeal  it.  lint  1  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  following  precautions  in  the 
handling  of  milk : 

All  stables  should  be  ventilated. 

They  should  be  as  clean  as  possible. 
Cows  should  be  carefully  groomed. 

The  milk  should  he  drawn  from  the  o.w  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
The  milk   should   not    he   left    standing  in  the  stable  a    moment   Longer   than 
necessary. 


32 

The  cooler  should  be  so  remote  from  the  stable  that  no  odors  can  reach  it. 
Its  temperature  should  be  at  from  45°  to  50°  1\,  and 
The  milk  should  be  aerated  to  remove  animal  odors. 
Under  these  improved  conditions  cows  not  only  yield  better  milk  but  more  of  it, 
and  amply  repay  the  labor  and  trouble  expended  upon  them. 

There  are  in  this  vicinity  dairies  infamous  alike  in  their  cruelty  to  animals,  in 
their  brutalizing  influence  upon  men,  and  in  their  disease-spreading  effects  upon 
infants  and  the  general  coin  in  unity  ;  but  I  believe  that  a  vast  majority  of  our  farmers 
desire  to  do  right  if  but  the  means  and  knowledge  were  presented  to  them. 

I.  F.  Graves,  Inspector  of  Milk. 

Health  orders. — The  board  of  health,  of  the  city  of  Boston  has  the 
following;  regulation: 

Whereas  cows'  milk  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  necessary  articles  of  food,  and 
is  oftentimes  seriously  impaired  in  usefulness  and  rendered  dangerous  to  health  by 
the  want  of  proper  care  in  its  production  or  subsequent  treatment  and  handling;  it 
is,  therefore,  ordered  that  the  following  regulation  be  and  is  hereby  adopted  : 

Section  1.  No  person  shall  use  any  building  as  a  stable  for  cows  unless  it  con- 
tains at  least  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each  animal,  is  well  lighted  and  ventilated, 
has  tight  roof  and  floors,  good  drainage,  a  supply  of  pure  water,  and  all  other  nec- 
essary means  for  maintaining  the  health  and  good  condition  of  the  cows,  and  has 
been  approved  by  the  board  of  health. 

Sec.  2.  Every  person  using  any  such  building  shall  keep  the  same  and  the  prem- 
ises connected  therewith,  and  all  land  used  for  pasturage  of  the  cows,  clean  and  free 
from  filth. 

Sec.  3.  Every  person  keeping  a  milch  cow  shall  permit  it  to  be  examined  from 
time  to  time,  as  to  its  freedom  from  disease,  by  a  veterinarian  designated  by  the 
board  of  health. 

Sec.  4.  No  person  having  an  infectious  disease,  or  having  recently  been  in  contact 
with  any  such  person,  shall  milk  cows  or  handle  cans,  measures,  or  other  vessels 
used  for  milk  intended  for  sale,  or  in  any  way  take  part  or  assist  in  handling  milk 
intended  for  sale,  until  all  danger  of  communicating  such  disease  to  other  persons 
shall  have  passed. 

Sec.  5.  No  person  shall  sell  or  use  for  human  food  the  milk  of  a  diseased  cow,  or 
permit  such  milk  to  be  mixed  with  other  milk,  nor  until  it  has  been  boiled  shall  use 
such  milk,  or  any  mixture  of  such  milk,  for  food  of  swine  or  other  animals. 

QUALITY    OF   MILK    SOLD. 

The  word  quality  when  applied  to  milk  may  mean  the  amount  of  milk 
solids  (which  is  the  best  acceptation)  or  it  may  have  reference  to  flavor, 
disease  germs,  bacteria  of  decay,  etc.  From  what  has  been  said  above 
it  will  be  seen  that  in  whatever  sense  we  use  the  word  the  quality  of 
milk  receives  considerable  attention,  especially  as  to  its  composition. 

In  Massachusetts  the  law  creating  a  legal  standard  of  12  and  13  per 
cent  is  well  enforced,  and  milk  in  the  market  usually  averages  even 
above  the  standard.  All  of  the  large  Boston  wholesalers  employ 
chemists,  who  devote  all  of  their  time  to  testing  the  supplies  which  they 
receive.  If  the  milk  of  any  dairy  is  below  the  statute  standard,  warn- 
ing is  sent  to  the  producer,  and  if  the  warning  does  not  result  in  an 
improved  quality  of  milk  the  supply  from  that  dairy  is  dropped.  In 
some  instances  where  there  is  unmistakable  evidence  of  watering  the 


33 

case  is  turned  over  to  State  officials  for  prosecution.  This  unofficial 
inspection  weeds  out  a  lot  of  milk  that  might  be  below  the  standard 
before  it  is  put  on  the  market,  and  insures  to  peddlers  the  purchase  of 
milk  that  will  not  get  them  into  trouble. 

In  Providence  a  lower  standard  exists  than  in  Massachusetts,  which 
causes  the  milk  inspector  some  trouble.  Most  natural  milk  has  over  12 
per  cent  of  solids.  A  small  amount  of  water  can  be  added  to  13  or  14 
per  cent  milk  without  changing  the  proportion  of  fat  and  solids  not  fat 
sufficiently  to  warrant  a  verdict  against  the  adulterator.  Most  judges 
will  convict  only  when  the  milk  is  below  the  statute  standard,  and  do 
not  feel  convinced  of  the  guilt  of  the  defendant  on  the  simple  assertion  of 
a  chemist  that  the  relation  of  fat  and  solids  not  fat  is  such  as  to  create 
a  certainty  that  the  milk  is  adulterated. 

In  the  smaller  cities  and  towns  statistics  from  samples  of  milk  taken 
by  various  officials  show,  usually,  a  higher  quality  than  samples  from 
milk  sold  in  Boston  or  Providence,  although  the  milk  in  those  places  is 
up  to  the  statutory  standard,  for  the  closer  the  contact  between  the 
producer  and  consumer  the  better  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  occa- 
sional meeting  of  producer  and  consumer,  i'ace  to  face,  has  a  tonic  and 
stimulating  effect  on  the  former,  which  tends  to  keep  up  the  quality  of 
the  milk  supply.  One  of  the  disadvantages  of  shipping  milk  by  rail- 
road is  that  the  producer  never  sees  the  consumer,  oftentimes  not  even 
the  peddler,  and  has  no  interest  in  his  supply  further  than  to  avoid  a 
word  of  warning  from  the  contractor's  chemist. 

Milk  substantially  above  the  statutory  standard  is  more  frequently 
fouud  among  farmers  retailing  their  own  milk  supply  direct  to  con- 
sumers than  elsewhere. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  analyses  of  milk  taken  from  milkmen 
by  officers  of  the  Massachusetts  Dairy  Bureau  in  the  regular  discharge 
of  their  routine  duties,  and  throws  an  accurate  sidelight  on  the  per 
cent  of  solids  sold.  These  samples  were  taken  in  May  and  June,  when 
the  legal  standard  is  12  per  cent. 

Worcester:  Samples  from  28  milkmen  ranged  from  12  to  14.34  per 
cent  total  solids  and  averaged  13.0G  per  cent. 

Taunton:  Five  samples  ranged  from  12.54  to  14.28  and  averaged 
13.50  per  cent. 

New  Bedford:  Thirty  samples  ranged  from  11.84  to  15.02  and  aver- 
aged 13.30  per  cent;  14  of  them  were  above  this  average. 

The  following  are  the  figures  of  four  days'  routine  work  of  the  Boston 
milk  inspector.     The  standard  for  July  is  12  per  cent. 
14777— So.  20 ;j 


34 

Inspection*  for  four  days  in  July. 


Samples  from  shops Number. 

Samples  from  wagons  d<>. . 

Above  the  standard : 

From  shops do  . . 

From  wagons do  . . 

Below  the  standard : 

From  shops do  . . 

From  wagons do  . . 

Poorest  sample  above  standard  Per  cent. 

Poorest  sample  found do  . . 


26th 

20 

30 



» 

19 

30 

49 

1 
0 



1 

12. 

IS 

11. 

92 

IS 
31 
49 


0 
30 
30 


12.06 
11.96 


12.06 
11.20 


12.25 
11.40 


The  Providence  milk  inspector  reported  that  lie  examined  24  samples 
of  milk  on  the  24th  of  July  and  47  samples  on  the  26th,  and  found  the 
results  as  follows : 


Total  solids  (per  cent). 


Fat  (per  cent). 


Solids  not  fat  (percent). 


Number  of 

samples. 


High- 
est. 


Low- 
est. 


13.75 
*  14. 35 


11.10 
t9.  65 


Aver- 
age. 


High- 
est. 


Low- 
est. 


Aver- 
age. 


High- 
est. 


Low- 
est. 


12.60 
12.21 


5.00 
^6.00 


3.00 
2.20 


3.81 
3.59 


9.40 
9.39 


7.50 
t7.  25 


Aver- 
age. 


8.80 
8.63 


*  Same  sample. 


t  Same  sample. 


This  inspector  remarks :  "  This  does  not  represent  the  average  quality 
of  the  milk  sold  in  Providence,  neither  would  the  figures  obtainable  for 
any  other  two  days,  unless  by  chance." 

The  following  figures  are  from  the  inspector  of  milk  at  Lowell: 


Number 
Per  cent.  of 

samples. 


Average  solids  for  February,  1897 13.  42 

Average  solids  for  June  5. 1897 12  96 

Average  solids  for  June  21,  1897 13.  06 

Average  solids  for  J uly  19  1*97 12.  82 


197 

237 

23 

24 


The  above  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  solid  matter 
in  milk  as  sold  in  Kew  England  cities. 

Regarding  milk  in  the  second  sense  of  the  word  "quality,"  we  are 
confronted  by  two  positive  opinions,  and  those  apparently  very  contra- 
dictory. In  spite  of  the  healthfulness  of  the  Boston  milk  supply,  Pro- 
fessor Sedgwick,  of  the  Institute  of  Technology,  a  bacteriologist  of  note, 
embraces  every  opportunity  to  criticise  Boston  milk. 

On  the  other  hand,  Dr.  Conn,  of  Wesleyan  University,  a  well-known 
bacteriologist  who  has  made  dairy  products  a  special  study,  says  what 
might  be  construed  as  a  flat  contradiction — that  Boston  has  probably  a 
better  milk  supply  than  any  other  city  in  the  world.  There  is  doubtless 
truth  in  both  statements,  their  seeming  inconsistency  being  explained 
by  the  different  standpoint  of  the  two  students.     One  speaks  from  the 


35 

standpoint  of  the  idealist,  and  linds  much  that  needs  condemnation; 
the  other  speaks  of  things  comparatively,  as  he  finds  them  in  many- 
places. 

Much  of  the  milk  supply  of  Boston  comes  from  such  distances  that 
the  selfish  interests  of  the  producers  compel  precautions  that  otherwise 
would  be  unnecessary.  Filthy  milk,  drawn  under  indifferent  condi- 
tions, will  not  be  sweet  and  wholesome  when  from  40  to  70  hours  old. 
Consequently,  the  railroad  milk  must  be,  even  without  legal  require- 
ment, more  or  less  carefully  attended  to.  Many  of  the  farmers  who 
ship  milk  to  Boston  have  ice  or  running  spring  water  for  the  quick  and 
immediate  eooling  of  milk,  and  if  their  methods  get  too  slovenly  the 
fact  is  recorded  in  the  poorer  keeping  qualities  of  the  milk,  and  some- 
times in  its  return  as  sour.  It  is  often  the  fact  that  the  precautions 
necessary  to  care  for  this  milk  shipped  from  a  distance  are  such  that 
after  arriving  in  the  city  it  will  keep  longer  than  milk  from  nearby,  the 
producer  of  the  latter  not  taking  so  much  pains  because  the  milk  was 
to  be  delivered  at  once. 

The  general  dissemination  of  information  as  to  the  bacteriological 
cause  of  milk's  souring — the  work  of  colleges,  experiment  stations,  and 
newspapers — is  leading  farmers  to  become  more  and  more  particular  in 
regard  to  cooling  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  milking,  and  taking  the 
other  necessary  precautions  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  its  keeping. 
Another  influence,  however,  is  pulling  the  other  way.  Quite  a  change 
in  the  nationality  of  the  farmers  is  going  on.  Farms  are  passing  from 
the  native  New  England  stock  into  the  hands  of  those  more  recently 
descended  from  other  countries,  thrifty,  industrious  people,  and  good 
citizens,  but  for  the  time  being  in  some  instances  they  are  not  as  well 
informed  in  the  latest  and  best  agricultural  methods.  They  are  not 
book  fanners,  and  frequently  a  change  of  farm  owners  means  a  tempo- 
rary deterioration  in  the  milk  supply  from  that  farm. 

The  methods  of  some  city  peddlers  are  open  to  criticism;  their  milk 
headquarters  and  their  stables  are  often  one  and  the  same  building,  and 
Bometimes  the  mixing  and  canning  is  not  done  under  perfectly  clean 
conditions. 

Outside  of  Boston  the  milk  supply  is  reasonably  good,  as  the  times 
go.  A  general  improvement  in  the  supply  of  the  different  cities  is 
reported  by  correspondents.  They  say  that  the  farmers  producing  milk 
arc  generally  reliable  and  honest;  that  it  is  for  the  most  part  cooled  in 
running  water  or  ice  tanks,  and  that  great  improvement  has  been  made 
dining  the  last  few  years.  Nearly  all,  however,  urge  further  advances 
along  this  line;  and  while  most  of  the  correspondents  not  only  note 
improvement  but  claim  that  their  town  or  city  compares  well  with 
others,  they  recognize  room  for  further  improvement,  and  call  especial 
attention  to  the  need  of  more  cleanliness  in  every  department — in 
vehicles,  cans,  and  the  milkmen  themselves.  Some  emphasize  the 
importance  of  more  care  in  cooling  and  aeration. 


36 

The  general  attention  which  has  been  given  to  tuberculosis  daring 
the  past  few  years  lias  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  many  tuberculous 
herds,  and  this  has  doubtless  had  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  milk  supply. 
All  of  the  New  England  States,  except  possibly  Rhode  Island,  have 
had  popular  agitations  of  this  subject,  and  sharp  dissension  has  arisen. 
The  point  in  dispute  has  been  whether  the  degree  of  danger  from  tuber- 
culous milk  was  sufficient  to  warrant  the  public  expense  and  losses  to 
cow  owners  incident  to  radical  measures  in  combating  the  disease. 
Whatever  may  be  the  views  of  different  persons  on  this  subject,  all 
must  admit  that  many  tuberculous  herds  have  been  exterminated,  and 
that  this,  at  least,  can  not  have  injured  the  milk  supply.  As  a  result 
of  this  agitation,  every  town  in  Massachusetts  has  a  cattle  inspector, 
who  makes  a  semiannual  examination  of  the  cows  in  his  town.  His 
official  authority  is  confined  to  quarantining  suspected  animals,  but 
the  system  has  done  much  good  in  a  suggestive  way,  in  improving  ven- 
tilation, increasing  the  amount  of  light,  and  reducing  the  uncleanliness 
of  stables. 

On  the  whole,  the  milk  supply  of  New  England  cities  seems  reason- 
ably up  to  the  best  average  practice  of  the  present  times. 

NEED  OF  ADVANCED  PRACTICES. 

As  to  more  advanced  practices,  however,  it  seems  that  very  little  is 
being  done.  The  ideal  way  of  selling  milk  is  not  on  a  dead  level  at  one 
price,  but  on  its  merits  and  at  a  price  proportionate  to  quality.  A  little 
is  already  being  done  in  this  direction,  and  a  number  of  dairymen  with 
Jersey  or  Guernsey  herds  sell  milk  above  the  going  price.  But  we 
know  of  no  milk  sold  on  a  guarantee  of  its  content  of  solids.  It  com- 
mands an  extra  price  because  people  know  that  the  milk  of  such  cows 
is  richer  than  the  milk  of  other  cows,  and  also  because  it  has  an  improved 
quality  in  other  directions. 

A  large  dairy  farm  in  Worcester  County  has  for  years  ran  to  Boston 
a  car  of  milk  from  superior  Jersey  herds,  which  has  been  sold  above 
the  current  price  for  milk,  for  the  most  part  at  10  cents  per  quart.  No 
specific  amount  of  total  solids  has  been  guaranteed,  but  the  milk  has 
been  better  than  13  per  cent — nearer  15.  When  individual  glass  bottles 
first  came  in  vogue  this  company  was  a  pioneer  in  their  use,  and  later 
when  tuberculin  was  discovered  it  was  the  first  to  advertise  milk  from 
tuberculin -tested  cows.  Indeed,  it  still  produces  the  only  milk  so 
advertised  and  sold  in  Boston.  Great  pains  is  taken  with  the  milk  on 
the  farm  and  it  is  always  in  good  condition. 

A  resident  of  the  city  of  Newton,  a  residential  suburb  of  Boston, 
has  developed  a  milk  business  calling  for  the  product  of  about  150 
cows.  The  milk  is  sold  within  a  narrow  radius  to  people  who  might 
be  called  his  neighbors,  who  have  seen  or  heard  of  his  methods,  and 
who  desire  the  milk.  [lis  cows' are  Jerseys,  tuberculin-tested,  kept  in 
one-story  barns,  with  no  manure  cellar  underneath  and  no  hay  lofts 


37 

overhead.  Light  and  ventilation  are  ample.  Scrupulous  cleanliness 
prevails.  Great  pains  is  taken  to  promote  the  comfort  of  the  animals. 
The  newest  barn  has  no  stanchions,  but  provides  a  box  stall  7  by  9 
feet  for  each  cow.  The  milk  is  run  through  a  cooler  as  soon  as  drawn, 
and  kept  cool  by  artificial  refrigeration — ammonia  process.  It  is  then 
bottled  in  glass  jars,  being  at  a  temperature  of  38  to  40  degrees,  and 
delivered  at  once  to  customers.  There  are  two  deliveries  a  day,  and 
the  milk  is  not  over  two  hours  old  when  in  the  hands  of  consumers. 

The  use  of  glass  jars  for  the  delivery  of  milk  is  growing  and  is  some- 
what common,  though  used  as  yet  by  a  small  minority  of  milkmen. 
Pasteurizing  milk  is  done  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Here  and  there 
some  pioneer  has  entered  into  this  field.  The  Massachusetts  Agricul- 
tural College  and  one  or  two  enterprising  dairy  farmers  within  reach  of 
Boston  have  recently  added  pasteurizing  apparatus  to  their  dairy  equip- 
ment, and  are  selling  sterilized  milk  and  cream.  The  number  who  sell 
pasteurized  milk,  in  proportion  to  the  whole,  is  extremely  small;  still 
there  has  been  a  satisfactory  beginning,  and  frequently  additions  are 
made  to  the  number  of  those  who  are  advancing  in  this  direction. 

The  pasteurizing  of  cream  is  more  common.  Some  of  the  concerns 
who  supply  cream  in  a  wholesale  way  pasteurize  all  of  their  output  to 
enhance  its  keeping  qualities. 

A  company  started  in  Boston  several  years  ago  the  sale  of  "modified" 
milk.  By  patent  processes  this  "laboratory"  prepares  from  cream, 
skim  milk,  and  sugar  of  milk  a  compounded  milk  of  any  desired  com- 
position, for  infants  and  invalids.  The  company  has  its  own  herd  of 
cows,  well  cared  for,  to  supply  the  milk. 

Some  of  the  large  milk  dealers  of  the  city  are  experimenting  with 
filtered  milk,  and  introducing  it  on  a  limited  scale.  The  process 
enhances  its  keeping  qualities,  and  the  milk  so  treated  has  been  shown 
by  microscopical  examination  to  be  almost  as  free  from  bacteria  as 
pasteurized  milk. 

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